UDC 903.27

Yu. N. Esin 1, Yu. I. Ozheredov 2

1 Khakass Research Institute of Language, Literature and History

23 Shchetinkina St., Abakan, 655017, Russia

E-mail: esin2006@yandex.ru

2 Tomsk State University

36 Lenin Ave., Tomsk, 634050, Russia

E-mail: nohoister@gmail.com

The article is devoted to a comprehensive study of L-shaped objects made of stone and clay found in the Urals, Western and Southern Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia. A nomenclature of terms and attributes is proposed for a uniform description and comparison of such finds. It is established that they were used by representatives of different cultural communities in the late IV-early II millennium BC. Trends in the historical development of L-shaped objects are analyzed. It is suggested that the genesis of objects of this type occurred on the basis of pestle and is associated with the territory of Central Asia. Analysis of signs of wear, decoration, size, and material allowed us to draw a conclusion about the functions of this category of products: the main one is the grinding of plant products, although in parallel they were used for grinding and crushing other materials; objects were used both for household and ritual purposes. The study of images on L-shaped objects from the perspective of a structural-semiotic approach allowed us to reconstruct some aspects of understanding these products.

Introduction

Among the archaeological finds, there are some that for many years cause a clash of various, sometimes diametrically opposed, hypotheses and opinions. Among them, undoubtedly, are mysterious objects made of stone and clay (some are works of art of their own era), found in the forest-steppe and steppe zone of Asia from the Urals in the west to Mongolia in the east. A clear confirmation of this assessment is the absence of even a generally accepted name. In the archaeological literature, they are called "hollows", "irons", "gladilki", "handle irons", "irons-phalluses", "zernoterki in the form of a boot", "sapozhkovidnye terochniki", "pestles in the form of a shoe block", "L-shaped objects", etc. In our opinion, the most correct of the existing names is the last one, which characterizes the form, and not one or another interpretation. Each such object consists of two parts that form an angle: the base, which is semicircular or sub-triangular in cross-section, and the rod, which is rounded or oval in cross-section. The rod moves away from one of the edges of the base in the opposite direction from its flat face, in relation to which it is located perpendicular or obliquely (Fig. 1). With the study of L-shaped objects is associated

The work was carried out with the financial support of RGNF (project N 07-01-63507a/T) and the Grant Council of the President of the Russian Federation (MK-1015.2007.6).

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1. Materials of the Samus culture. 1-3-Samus-4 (TSU MAES funds); 4-pos. Dzerzhinskiy (TOKM funds).

2. Items with "stes" on the base, Samus-4 (TSU MAES funds).

a number of problems: cultural and chronological attribution, function, typology, semantics and pragmatics of decor. The proposed article is devoted to their comprehensive consideration.

Cultural contexts and chronology of finds

The study included 51 subjects. Of these, 31 are associated with the Samus archaeological culture of the Ob region, which belongs to the Seimin-Turbinsky cultural circle (Figs. 1, 2): 29 were found at the Samus-4 settlement (Tomsk district, Tomsk region). [Matyushchenko, 1973a, p. 23; Bobrova, 2000, p. 21]; another one was found in the village. Dzerzhinsk (Tomsk district, Tomsk region) and Zavyalove-1a settlement at the mouth of the Karakan River (Iskitim district, Novosibirsk region) [Matyushchenko, 1973a, p. 10, fig. 54, 3; Molodin, 1977, Table LXXX, 7]. Recently, based on calibrated radiocarbon dates, monuments of the Seimin-Turbinsky circle in the Siberian and Volga-Ural regions are dated to the end of the third and beginning of the second millennium BC (Kiryushin, 2002, p. 80-82; Grushin, 2004, p. 160; Molodin, 2001, p. 123; Epimakhov, Hanks, and Renfrew, 2005, fig. 3]. Not later than the beginning of the second thous. The Samus culture was also formed before our era (Yesin, 2004, p. 19).

Four objects made of clay are associated with the Krotovo culture of the Irtysh region, which also belongs to the Seimin-Turbinsky circle. They were found at the Turunovka-4 cult site on the Kama River and in the Sopka-2 burial ground at the mouth of the Tartas River (Vengerovsky district, Novosibirsk region) [Molodin, 1985, figs. 36, 11-14].

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3. Finds from the southern part of the Ob River basin.

1-Solontsy-5 (Kungurova, 2003, Fig. 8, 3); 2-Lower Sooru (Larin, Kungurova, Stepanova, 1998, Fig. 1, 6); 3-Tytkesken-6 (Kiryushin and Kungurov, 1994, Fig. 6, 7].

4. Finds from the Minusinsk basin.

1-Vostochnoye (MKM funds); 2-Sabinka (MKM funds); 3-place unknown (KHNKM funds).

Six L-shaped objects were found in the southern part of the Ob River basin. One of them (Figs. 3, 7) was found in the burial of a man of special social status, dating back to the fourth millennium BC, in the burial ground of the Neolithic Kuznetsk-Altai culture Solontsy-5 on the left bank of the Bii River (Krasnogorsky district of the Altai Territory) [Kungurova, 2003, pp. 35-36]. Another object was found at the settlement of the Afanasyev culture Nizhnyaya Sooru near the village of Kulada (Gorny Altai Republic) and may date back to the third millennium BC (Larin, Kungurova, and Stepanova, 1998, pp. 68-69) (Figs. 3, 2). Another one comes from the layer of the Bolshemyss culture of the Tytkesken-6 settlement in the estuary Tytkesken River (Gorny Altai Republic) and probably also belongs to the third millennium BC (Kiryushin and Kungurov, 1994) (Fig. 3, 3). Three objects were discovered in Altai by chance: two from the collection of N. S. Gulyaev (Kiryushin, 2002, p. 55, Fig. 126, 5], one was found near the village of Zerkala by E. M. Mednikova (Matyushchenko, 1973a, p. 11, fig. 54, 4; Kiryushin, 2002, p. 55, fig. 126, 4). According to Yu. F. Kiryushin (2002, p. 48-55), these finds may belong to the Yelunin culture, which, along with the Samus and Krotovo cultures, is part of the Seimin-Turbinsky circle. However, the absence of L-shaped objects on the excavated Elunin monuments does not allow us to be sure of this yet. The proximity of the size of the finds from the Gulyaev collection and from the settlement of Nizhnyaya Sooru does not exclude their connection with the Afanasyevites.

Four objects originate from the southern part of the Minusinsk basin: a fragment of the base was found at the settlement of the Afanasiev culture Tepsey-10 (Krasnoturansky district of Krasnoyarsk Krai) [Gryaznov and Komarova, 1979, pp. 24-25, Fig. 14, 5], the rest were found accidentally (Fig. 4). The proximity of the base length and slope the relationship of these finds to the parameters of the object from the settlement of Tepsey-10 suggests that they were also made by Afanasyevites.

A number of L-shaped objects were found in Kazakhstan. Three of them are associated with monuments of the Eneolithic Tersek culture of the third millennium BC. A broken foundation and a whole specimen* were found at the Bestamak settlement (Auliekolsky district, Kustanai region); another foundation was found in the Tersek burial of a woman (Kolbina et al., 2006, p. 397). Not far from the settlement of Bestamak, another L-shaped object was accidentally found, slightly different from the Tersek ones (Figs. 5, 1). It is distinguished by its short base and its proportions are similar to an object accidentally found in the Southern Urals near Mount Cheka (Kizilsky district, Chelyabinsk region) (Figs. 5, 2). A special feature of the latter is the design of the rod in the form of a horse's head, the manner of representation of which is close to the Seimin visual tradition, represented on bronze objects, stone sculpture petroglyphs [Pyatkin and Miklashevich, 1990, pp. 146-153; Kiryushin, 2002, p. 56]. This fact can serve as a basis for dating both finds.

An L-shaped object was found in the Middle Urals, in the settlement of Koptyaki-9 (Figs. 28, 75; Chenchenkova, 2004a, N 139]. According to M. F. Kosarev (1981, p. 84), it is associated with the Seimian-Turbian epoch and probably reflects the contacts of the Ural and Sa eras.-

* The authors are very grateful to S. S. Kaliyeva for the information provided on the findings.

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the Musi population. In favor of his assumption is the fact that the four corners on the rod of the object from the monument Koptyaki-9 are similar to the structure of the decor on the base of the object from the village. Dzerzhinsk; the pits on their bases are also comparable.

The range of objects under consideration includes a random find from Mongolia, characterized by a short base and a thickening at the top of the rod. According to E. A. Novgorodova (1989, Fig. 15), it can be dated to the Neolithic.

Published but insufficiently informative data on several other L-shaped objects [Dmitriev, 1935, p. 214; Spitsyn, 1915, Fig. 30; et al.], including those from more eastern regions [Okladnikov, 1970, p. 6], were not involved in the analysis.

In general, the contexts of the discovery of L-shaped objects in the Urals, Kazakhstan, Western and Southern Siberia, and Mongolia indicate their use by the population of different cultural communities in the IV-first half of the II millennium BC.

Comparative analysis and issues of historical development

Comparison of the finds reveals important features of this type of historical source.

Material: most of the objects are made of stone (the predominant raw material is several varieties of it - from hard granitoids to soft sedimentary rocks), but only clay ones are known among the Krotovsky ones.

Processing: most of the items were created artificially, but among the materials of the Samus-4 settlement there are river pebbles of a natural L-shape, only slightly processed or completely unprocessed.

Size: Krotovo finds stand out from the total number, represented so far only by miniature objects; the same ones are also available among Samus materials.

Proportions: the base of the Neolithic object (Solontsy-5) is barely distinguished in relation to the rod; similar proportions are found in finds from Northern Kazakhstan (near the settlement of Bestamak) and Southern Urals (Cheka); in objects from the settlement of the Afanasyev culture Nizhnyaya Sooru and from the collection of N. S. Gulyaev, the rod length is almost 2 times longer less pronounced disproportion in favor of the rod in finds from the Minusinsk basin and from the Koptyaki-9 monument; in the Krotovskys, both parts are approximately equal; in the Samusskys, the rod length is usually less than the base; objects of the Samus culture and those found in the Minusinsk basin indicate the stability of proportions within the series with a difference in absolute values. dimensions and the presence of individual deviations (fig. 6).

5. Finds from Kazakhstan and the Urals.

1-near the settlement of Bestamak [Chenchenkova, 2004a, N 138]; 2-Cheka [Ibid., N 137]; 3-Koptyaki-9 [Ibid., N 139].

6. The ratio of the length of the rod to the length of the base of L-shaped objects: 1-Minusinskaya depression (average coefficient - 1.2); 2 - Samus-4 (average coefficient-0.9); 3-settlement. Dzerzhinskiy (coefficient - 0.7); 4 - Zavyalovo-1a (coefficient - 1.1); 5 - Turunovka-4 (coefficient - 1); 6 - Gulyaev collection (average coefficient-1.8); 7-Mirrors (coefficient-1.5); 8-Solontsy-5 (coefficient-2.6); 9-Lower Sooru (coefficient-2); 10-Tytkesken-6 (coefficient-1.3); 11-Cheka (coefficient-3); 12-near the settlement of Bestamak (coefficient - 2.3); 13-Koptyaki-9 (coefficient-1.4); 14-Bestamak (coefficient-1.8).

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Wear: in Neolithic and Eneolithic finds, it is well expressed on the flat face of the base; in Bronze Age objects, it may be weakly expressed or completely absent on this face, it may be located on the top of the rod.

Design: at least ten pictorial elements used in the design are distinguished; the most common thickening on the top of the rod, which researchers traditionally associate with the head of the phallus, but sometimes it has the appearance of a human or animal head; images on the base are known only from objects of the Samus and Krotovo cultures, as well as from the Koptyaki-9 monument (see the table).

Color: a number of Samus finds show traces of red paint in various shades, from pink to dark cherry (possibly ochre and hematite), and soot; red paint was found on an object from the vicinity of the Bestamak settlement.

In general, the differences between L-shaped objects show certain patterns related to their territorial, cultural and chronological affiliation.

In the context of the problem of the genesis of these items, special attention should be paid to the hypothesis of the similarity of Samus L-shaped objects with sculptural images of seated women in the ancient agricultural population of Turkmenistan and Anatolia [Slavnin, 1978, p.16; Chenchenkova, 1995, p. 12; Kiryushin, 2004, p. 36]. An indirect argument in its favor is the presence of southern connections in both the Samus and other cultures of the Urals and Siberia mentioned above. In particular, the origin of the socially dominant component of the Seimin-Turbine collectives is probably associated with the Tien Shan and Western Altai (Chernykh and Kuzminykh, 1989: 250-251; Esin, 2004: 21). Signs of the Southern Europoid Mediterranean anthropological type are reflected in the main part of the Samus sculpture, and it is also represented in the Samus and Yelunin anthropological materials (Dremov, 1984; 1997, p.66).

The Afanasyev culture is characterized by a Europoid anthropological type and a productive economy; a significant part of its range is located south and west of the Minusinsk Basin and Gorny Altai. The problem of its origin should be considered in the context of the process of emergence and spread of cattle breeding [Khlopin, 1999, p. 81].

The southern component, which is close to the ancient forms of the southern branch of the ancient Mediterranean Caucasian race, is recorded in the carriers of the Kuznetsk-Altai culture. The initial territory of its distribution is unknown, but it is assumed that the nearest area included in it could be the south of Kazakhstan (Dremov, 1980, p. 41; Kiryushin, Kungurova, Kadikov, 2000, p.55-58). A similar component, along with the Afanasiev component, is distinguished in the materials of the Bolshemyss culture [Kiryushin, 2002, p. 36-37].

Thus, the spread of L-shaped objects in the Urals, Western and Southern Siberia is associated with the penetration of various population groups from more southern, Central Asian territories to the north, which began in the Neolithic and continued in the Bronze Age. However, the hypothesis that these objects are similar to the sculptural images of women found in Turkmenistan and Anatolia cannot be accepted. It was based on only two arguments: female figurines also have an L-shaped shape; on the rod of the Samus object from the village. Dzerzhinskiy depicts the head of a man. However, other features of these items differ: L-shaped objects are devoid of an anthropomorphic appearance; images of women and heads on such objects have faces turned in opposite directions; figurines do not have signs of wear characteristic of L-shaped objects, which indicates a different use. Even more important, the earliest finds from the Ob basin (Solontsy-5, Nizhnyaya Sooru, Tytkesken-6) and from the Turgai plateau (Tersek culture), which in the context of this hypothesis could be expected to have the greatest anthropomorphism, are completely devoid of it.

The shape of early objects is distinguished by a short base, which indicates their genesis at the base of the pestle. Apparently, the increase in grinding volumes and the need to increase its productivity motivated the increase in the working surface area

Visual elements on L-shaped objects

Elements

Number of items with certain elements

on the rod

on the basis of

Rounded thickening

2 (5)

-

Single short groove

(1)

-

Elements of the human head

2

-

Elements of the animal's head

1 (3)

-

Cross grooves and rollers

1

1

Slanted notches

(1)

(1)

Grooved or notched corners

(1)

1

Prong roller

-

3

A wavy line with dashes on the sides

-

(1)

Oval or rounded recess

-

1 (1)

Note: figures without parentheses represent data for the Samus series, while figures in parentheses represent data for other finds.

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tools and the transition from circular to rectilinear movements. This hypothesis is supported by the nature of the design of L-shaped objects. In quantitative and territorial terms, it is most common to give the rod a phallic shape. On the basis of linguistic material, the relationship between the frequency of use of a sign and its "age" is established, which is applicable to any evolving sign system [Senchilov, 2000, p. 30]. Since the decor of the objects studied is also such a system, phallic design should be recognized historically as the earliest and most basic for L-shaped objects. This also indicates a high probability of their genesis based on the transformation of the pestle, since the phallus and pestle have a strong ancient associative relationship, which is confirmed by a very large number of pestles, the shape of which is similar to the phallus [Chenchenkova, 2004a, N 99-108; Avanesova, 2004, Fig. 1, 1 - 4; 2, 7; and others].

Based on the chronology of monuments, we can outline some trends in the historical change of L-shaped objects. Probably, the most ancient of them was characterized by a short base, which gradually lengthened, reaching its maximum size in the Bronze Age. Two Bronze Age finds from Northern Kazakhstan and the Southern Urals are an exception (see Fig. 5, 1, 2), the proportions of which are close to archaic. The earliest design of L-shaped objects was to give the rod a phallic shape. In the Bronze Age, the decor became more complex, and there were pictorial elements that modeled the head of a person or animal, a plant, etc. At the same time, products with a simple design did not disappear, they continued to be created and used. Early items are characterized by significant wear on the lower edge of the base. In finds dating back to the Bronze Age, it may be weakly expressed on the base or even absent, but it can be traced on the rod. Miniature L-shaped objects appear, including clay objects that have no economic significance. All this reflects the growing complexity and differentiation of the social functions of such products. Changes in the economy, in particular the spread of more productive two-handed grain grinders of a different design, and the worldview that occurred in the era of the developed and late Bronze Age, lead to the cessation of their manufacture and use.

Function

There are several hypotheses about the purpose of L-shaped objects. According to one of them, based on the flatness of the base side, they were used to smooth out seams on leather clothing like an iron [Spitsyn, 1915, p. 236-238; Kiryushin and Kungurov, 1994, p. 112], according to another, based on the same feature, they were used for grinding grain [Dmitriev, 1935, p. 236-238]. p. 213; Kosarev, 1981, p. 103; Chenchenkova, 2004a, p. 10]; the rod of the object served as a handle. The third hypothesis relates the purpose of these products to mining and metallurgical and metalworking operations, allowing them to be used as an abrasive, hammer, and grating tile [Valkov, 1997, p. 111-111; Larin, Kungurova, and Stepanova, 1998, p.68]. Its main argument - the discovery of these objects on monuments that demonstrate highly developed bronze foundry production-cannot be considered convincing, especially given the presence of such finds in Neolithic materials. The fourth hypothesis is based on non-utilitarian features of L-shaped objects, in particular the phallic shape of their rod, and connects them with the ritual sphere, and the handle in this case could serve as a base [Matyushchenko, 1973b, p. 196; Matyushchenko and Sherstobitova, 2004, p. 223; Molodin, 1985, p. 73; Ozheredov, 1999, p. 108; Gusev, 1999, p. 227; Balakin and Sherstobitova, 2005, p. 60]. According to the fifth hypothesis, based on information about pottery production in India, L-shaped objects could be used as an anvil placed inside a ceramic vessel when knocking out the walls with a wooden spatula (Slavnin, 1978, pp. 16-17). This hypothesis is opposed by several facts: a long rod makes the object inconvenient for such use; no corresponding traces of molding were found on the vessels; and wear on the base and rod does not agree with the proposed interpretation. The assumption about the similarity of L-shaped objects with female figures has already been analyzed above. In general, among the listed hypotheses, only those that are based on the characteristics of the products themselves and the context of their existence have real grounds. The differences between them are due to different attention to certain features of these products and insufficient consideration of the rest.

Further study of L-shaped objects requires a new source analysis. The Samus series has the greatest informative potential. It is distinguished both by the number of items and by the number of features that characterize them. In addition, the analysis within the framework of a single-cultural series is methodologically most correct. Therefore, it is the Samus culture objects that are chosen as the main object of study in this article; the remaining finds are used as additional material. Subjects will be analyzed from the perspective of a structural-semiotic approach focused on the use of internal informative opportunities.

Among the signs that reflect the use of L-shaped objects, the most typical is worn out.-

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the flatness of the base face. A study of this deterioration in objects from the Samus-4 settlement, the Minusinsk basin, and the Solontsy-5 burial ground (Kungurova, 2003, p. 36) has shown that it is characterized by two main features:: 1) surface polish, smoothness of the existing irregularities (pits, cracks, protrusions); 2) thin and weak longitudinal scratches associated with rectilinear reciprocating movements of the object, in which the rod was a handle. Such wear and tear could have been caused by contact with soft organic material. It is similar to the polished working surface of the chimes of grain grinders [Semenov, 1969, p. 9] and supports the hypothesis of using L-shaped objects for grinding vegetable products. It is very important that this explanation is confirmed by the plant decor on the basis of a number of products. On the flat face of the base of two Samus objects, there are shallow transverse grooves (see Figs. 2, 1). They are comparable to the transverse notches on the surface of grain grinders, which were applied for more efficient grinding [Ibid.]. The base of miniature objects from the settlement of Samus-4 is also affected by rubbing. However, the effect of their use could not be of economic significance. In a number of Samus L-shaped objects, wear is observed not at the base, but at the end of the rod (see Fig. 1, 1, 3; 2). From an economic point of view, rubbing with a rod that had a small working surface area, as well as with miniature objects, is inefficient. It is undoubtedly connected with the ritual sphere. Based on an item from the village. Dzerzhinsk has an oval recess, which could be used for filling something, rubbing or mixing some components. It is possible that the grooves on the base of this object, as well as the grooves and depressions between the teeth of the longitudinal roller on other products, also had functional significance in the context of the rite. Perhaps they were used for smearing with what was obtained as a result of rubbing, or with some other composition. In several products, the ends of the rod and the base are damaged by chipping, apparently due to the crushing of something solid. This indicates that the use of L-shaped objects was not limited only to the grinding of plant products, and indicates their incomplete functional differentiation. Four products with the Samus-4 system have additionally treated small surface areas on the side and end sides of the base, slightly reducing its width and length in certain places (see Fig. 2). These "stes" are probably associated with fitting the base to some kind of rigid fastening. A different attachment may be caused by the narrowness of the inner corner between the rod and the base of another product (see Fig. 1, 1). Apparently, with this use, the base was located vertically, with the rod part facing up (as shown in Fig. 2), and was tied to a solid base; the stability of the object's position was provided by a flat face, which did not allow it to turn to the sides. The item fixed in this way could not be used for economic purposes. Traces of red paint and soot preserved on a number of products also indicate non-utilitarian use.

Semantics and pragmatics of decor

To reconstruct the semantics and ritual role of L-shaped objects in ancient cultures, their design helps. A number of signs of the rod indicate a resemblance to the phallus: 1) oval or rounded cross-section; 2) sometimes a slight bend or slope relative to the base; 3) thickening in the form of a head at the upper end; 4) a longitudinal groove on top of the thickening (see Fig. 5, 1); 5) surface design of some objects with transverse grooves and rollers comparable to skin folds (see Fig. .1, 2). The phallic hypothesis is also supported by the method of attachment reconstructed for a number of objects, in which the position of the rod is similar to the position of the phallus in the state of erection. It can be assumed that objects with such fastening were used as a part of the costume of persons performing ritual functions. Analogs are known in the design of Bronze Age sculptures from Turkmenistan (Fig. 7, 1, 2) and Western Asia (Masson and Sarianidi, 1973, Fig. 9, 2): anthropomorphic figures have the same relief phallus stuck directly under the relief belt.

In two Samus products, the top of the rod is decorated in the form of a human head. Of these, the subject from the village is of the greatest interest. 1, 4). Facial features, in particular the massiveness of the chin, allow us to consider the head depicted on it as male, and its shape in horizontal section does not correspond to the real one, since the width of the face is larger than the back of the head. The assumption that an artificially deformed skull is shown [Chenchenkova, 2004a, p. 320] is not supported by arguments. In our opinion, this interpretation is due to the desire to give this part of the subject not only anthropomorphic, but also phallic features. In one product from the Samus-4 settlement, the end of the rod is curved and resembles the head of an animal (see Figures 2, 2). In the framework of Samus art, this shape of the rod corresponds to the shape of a horse's head (probably a stallion) depicted on ceramic vessels (Esin, 2001, Figure 5). A realistic image of a horse's head

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7. Clay figurines from Turkmenistan and the Black Sea region.

1, 2-Turkmenistan (Masson and Sarianidi, 1973, Fig. 8, B), 3-Black Sea region (Rybakov, 1981, p. 182).

shown on an item found near Cheka Mountain (see Figs. 5, 2). Not quite clear zoomorphic forms, combined with phallic features, have rods of products from the vicinity of the Bestamak settlement (possibly the head of a ram [Chenchenkova, 2000, p. 208]) and Koptyaki-9 (possibly the head of a bird or snake [Chenchenkova, 2004b, p.160]).

A similar principle of combining phallic features with anthropomorphic or zoomorphic ones (the head of a ram, horse, bull, bear, etc.) is demonstrated by Siberian and Central Asian stone pestles, terochniki and "wands". In some of them (mainly pestles), as in the Samus L-shaped objects, the image of the head of a person or animal is combined with the image of the head of a phallus or replaces it [Chenchenkova, 2004a, N 83, 88], in others it is placed on the opposite part of the product [Ibid., N 66], and in one case (the Irsky "rod"), two human heads are identified with testicles [Ibid., N 96]. It is characteristic that these finds have the same wear and tear (polished, chipped) as the L-shaped objects. It is possible that some of the phallic "wands" in the process of the rite could be plugged into the belt.

Combining the features of a phallus and the head of a human or animal on one part of an object violates taxonomic boundaries, contradicts formal logic, but not the features of human thinking, which can create associative connections between objects regardless of real similarities and differences between them. The implementation of such connections in the language and text is usually called a metaphor. As a pictorial mythological metaphor [Esin, 2005, p.116-117; Leontiev, Kapelko, and Esin, 2006, p. 26-33], one can also consider the design of the core of L - shaped objects. In philological sciences, where the theory of metaphor is most developed, it is proposed to distinguish four components in the semantic structure of a metaphor: the main and auxiliary subjects and their features that give grounds for comparing subjects. The purpose of the metaphor is to characterize the properties of the main subject by using similar properties of the auxiliary subject. To understand a metaphor means to find similarity in some features of two incompatible objects of reality [Shakhnarovich and Yuryeva, 1988, p. 109-113; Arutyunova, 1998, p. 296]. Despite the difference between the pictorial mythological metaphor and the later poetic one [Esin, 2005, p. 4]. 117], due to the specifics of archaic thinking, the principle of its interpretation is the same. At the same time, it is important to take into account that for mythological identifications, generalizations on action, which are closely related to sensory qualities that are inseparable from the objects themselves, were especially important. Analyzing the design of the rods of Samus L-shaped objects from such positions, we can distinguish several metaphors. First, it is the identification of the object with the phallus. Secondly, the combination of images of the phallus and the head of an anthropomorphic or zoomorphic character. The basis for the first identification is the identity of the rhythmic reciprocating movements of the testicle during rubbing and the phallus during sexual intercourse. This is especially clearly shown by the traces of harmony not only on the flat face of the base, but also on the top of the rod, which sometimes has a phallic shape. Fixing the associative connection with the phallus in the design of an L-shaped object is a way to strengthen its corresponding quality, which is important for the ritual sphere. For the interpretation of the second metaphor, it is important that the image of the phallus in an erect state represents the most important sign of a man for a certain situation - fertilizing power. Undoubtedly, the image of a man or stallion combined with it also had such power. In terms of productive forces, the stallion is superior to a person. In a number of ancient cultures, they were regarded as a very important quality, and their owner could be deified. This, for example, was reflected in the ancient Indian ritual of ashwamedha, in the image of the ancient Iranian mythical stallion Tishtrya. It is more difficult to assess the reproductive capabilities of an anthropomorphic character, but the positional identity with the image of a stallion also allows us to consider them non-ordinary. On Samus ritual vessels, images of the horse's head are always placed in the estuary ornamental tier, correlated with the sky (Esin, 2004, p. 18). Apparently, the combination of phallic features with anthropomorphic or zoomorphic ones is aimed at strengthening the male reproductive power of the object through its identification with the image of a mythological character connected with the sky (in the image of a stallion or a person). Okra had a close magical target-

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sewing L-shaped objects: various shades of paint are comparable to the color of skin and blood, so the staining was apparently designed to give the object vitality.

Very important for the interpretation of the products under consideration is the design of the base of the item from the village. 1, 4). It has six pairs of inclined grooves on top, which converge at an angle. Similarly, in the form of a straight line with oblique dashes extending from it, Samus art depicted plants (Fig. 8, 1), an ear (Molodin and Glushkov, 1989, Fig. 25, 7]. Similar images are found in the materials of the Afanas'evskaya (Gryaznov, 1999, Figs. 13, 5; 35, 4) and Okunevskaya cultures of the Minusinsk Basin (Figs. 8, 2), in the art of ancient farmers of the western regions of Central Asia (see Figs. 7, 1, 2) and etc. In one case (Okunevskaya culture), oblique lines extending from the vertical one are part of the leaf pattern (see Figs. 8, 4). These analogs, the green color and the sub-triangular shape of the base of the item from the village. Dzerzhinskiy's decor can be interpreted as vegetable, which is an additional indication of the main material that was subjected to rubbing: most likely, it was of vegetable origin. The oval fossa in the lower part of the plant image, contrasted with the thickening at the top of the rod, is quite likely to model the vulva. The same fossa marks this organ in the image of the mother goddess from the Okunevsky burial ground Upper Askiz-1 (Leontiev, Kapelko, and Esin, 2006, No. 227). In general, the design of the base identifies the feminine principle with the plant object. It is comparable to female figurines depicting a plant emerging from the womb, which are widely represented in ancient agricultural sculpture in Eurasia (see Figures 7, 3 [Masson and Sarianidi, 1973, Table III, 4; Pogozheva, 1983, Fig. 27, 2; 30, 2]). Similar to the composition on an L-shaped object from the village. Some anthropomorphic figures of the Bronze Age from Turkmenistan combine images of a plant and a phallus (see Figs. 7, 7); sometimes the plant is represented only by drawn corners (see Figs. 7, 2), which is especially close to the decoration of the base of the Samus object and the rod of the product from the Koptyaki-9 monument.

The design of three more Samus products is connected with the female and plant theme, which have a longitudinal roller made of triangular protrusions on an oval-shaped base (see Fig. 2, 7). This design, apparently, simulates the vulva. For example, the female genital organ was depicted in a similar way - in the form of an oval with a longitudinal line - in the Okunev art of the Minusinsk Basin, which is close in chronology and visual language [Leontiev, Kapelko, and Esin, 2006, Fig. 20, 4, N 118]. However, this hypothesis does not fully explain the division of the roller into individual teeth. It should be taken into account that two Samus sculptural images of the head have a roller made of teeth (Chenchenkova, 2004a, N 73, 74). In this context, it can mean hair, hairstyle. However, even in this case, the meaning of the division into teeth is unclear, and the possibility of transferring such an explanation to the teeth of L-shaped objects raises serious doubts. Their proper (denotative) meaning helps to understand another comparison: they can be compared with rhythmic punctures on the sides of vertical lines on Samus ceramic vessels, transmitting leaves or grains (Bobrova, 2000, Fig. 6, 4; Matyushchenko, 1973a, Fig. 34, 5). By the way, vegetation was also depicted in a similar way on the ceramics of ancient farmers of Iran and Turkmenistan (Kircho, 1981, Figs. 2, 7, 27). Based on the proposed explanation, the roller of teeth on the basis of L-shaped objects can be interpreted as vegetation emerging from the female womb, as an identification of the female womb and the plant. Apparently, this composition in a different form expresses the same content as the base of the object from the village. Dzerzhinskiy district. The purpose of the pictorial metaphor on the base is to emphasize and strengthen the idea of fertility, identifying it with the generative power of the earth embodied by plants.

The identification of male fertilizing power with the sky, and female fertility with the earth and plants in ancient times was widespread. Such

8. Images of plants in the art of the Samus and Okunev cultures.

1-Upper Sor-1 (Kosarev, 1984, fig. 28, 1); 2-Chernovaya-8 (Leontiev, Kapelko, and Esin, 2006, fig. 24, 1); 3-Minusinskaya basin (Ibid., fig. 24, 2); 4-Minusinskaya basin (funds KHNKM).

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representations are recorded in Indo-European mythology. As the mother who gives birth to plants after marriage with the sky, the earth appears in Sumerian texts. The personification of the periodically reproduced marriage of heaven and earth in both cases could be rain [Antonova, 1984, p. 23; Levinton, 1994, p. 423]. A similar mythological formula is embodied in Okunev's art. The sandstone tiles show plant branches with leaves and a series of short dashes and oblong pits (see Figures 8, 3, 4), which in this and other contexts are interpreted as raindrops and streams [Leontiev, 1984, p. 32; Esin, 1999, p. 142; Leontiev, Kapel'yu, and Esin, 2006, p. 68]. Noteworthy is the pictorial structure of the leaves on one of the tiles (see Figs. 8, 3), which differs from other Okunev drawings of plants, but is identical to the image of the vulva of the Okunev mother goddess. The contradiction between the elements combined in one composition indicates the metaphorical meaning of the image. Such a combination generates qualitatively new information, reveals the associative identification of plants with the feminine principle that existed in culture (the plant could be the embodiment of a female deity), and rain and sky - with a male one. In the language of metaphors, this composition tells about the marriage of heaven and earth. Apparently, reciprocating movements during rubbing with an L-shaped object (pestle, "rod"), identified with the phallus and correlated with the male celestial deity, also correlated with marriage relations in the ritual and magical context. The feminine principle was represented by a rubbed object of plant origin, embodying a female deity.

Summarizing all this, it can be stated that L-shaped objects have signs associated with several objects: the phallus, vulva, plant, human and animal head. By their location on the product, these features are grouped into two groups, one of which is located on the rod, the other-on the base (see the table). In general, L-shaped objects combine two content plans and two ways of using them. The first (dominant) semantic and functional block is associated with the idea of male fertilizing power. It manifests itself in the design of the rod, the method of attachment to the suit, the rhythmic reciprocating movements of the object during rubbing, as well as during the ritual dance (in the case of attachment to the suit). The other (additional) block is related to plant and female themes. It manifests itself in the design of the base, the location of the base on the suit, the object of rubbing, the intended filling of the oval recess and grooves with some composition that could relate to the ideas of fertility and fertilization. Both blocks are connected with the idea of fertility, so their opposition on one level is removed by synthesis on the other. The combination of male and female characteristics on one subject is not unique; it has parallels in the anthropomorphic sculpture of Turkmenistan [Antonova, 1977, p. 77; Rindyuk, 1999, p. 35-38], Kazakhstan [Chenchenkova, 2000, p.198]. It is also very important that the design of L-shaped objects associatively connects the fertility of the plant, animal world and the human collective. Apparently, it was the idea of such a relationship between man and nature that lay at the heart of the pragmatics of the ritual use of these objects and ensured their magical effectiveness. The purpose of the rite was to stimulate fertility and increase the viability of the collective. There is no doubt about the variability of the rite itself, which allowed one or another emphasis in the design and application of the subject while preserving the semantic and pragmatic core.

Various methods of active and passive use of L-shaped objects (rubbing plant material, smearing, attaching to a costume for performing a dance, burning on fire) were elements of the same rite. Many of these items were found in hearths and are represented by fragments (Matyushchenko, 1973b, p. 196). Perhaps this indicates that at the end of a ritual or some calendar ritual cycle, they were deliberately destroyed and thrown into the fire. Broken L-shaped objects are found in the materials of the Sopka-2 and Bestamak burial grounds (in all cases they are represented only by the bases), therefore, they were also used in the funeral rite. This fact has a parallel - the use in the funeral rite of many cultures of terochniki of a different form, pestles, millstones, including broken ones. Apparently, this indicates the connection of terochniki with the ideas of death and rebirth.

During the excavations of the Samus-4 settlement, a set of six L-shaped objects was recorded [Ibid.], which resembles sacrificial complexes of several pestles, terochniki, and "rods" known in the Yelunin, Okunev, and other cultures. A later version of this phenomenon is the phallic-shaped pestles and the courant of the grain grater, found at the base of the "olenny kamen" in Gorny Altai. At the same time, the "deer stone" itself is an image of a mythological male character (the patron saint of the collective), one of whose functions was to grant fertility [Kubarev, 1979, pp. 19-20, 86]. It is very important that at the end of the chime there are three oblique lines, the same as in the place of the face of the deity at the "deer stones". In their role, they are comparable to the image of a human head on the rod of an L-shaped product from the village. It may also have two oblique lines on the zoomorphic head of a Ural object (see Figs. 5, 3).

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The discovery of an L-shaped object in an extraordinary ("shamanic") male burial of the Neolithic Solontsy-5 burial ground indicates that the main actor in the rites using such objects could be a man. A distant echo of this rite is probably the fertility rite dedicated to the ancestor spirit Kocho-kan, recorded among the northern Altaians.

Conclusion

The study of L-shaped objects demonstrates the possibility of considering them on a par with pestles, "wands" and terochniki of various cultures of the Neolithic - Bronze Age of North and Central Asia. The similarity is shown in the ritual function, the principles of decoration, and sometimes in the visual elements. It can indicate the proximity of rituals, magical representations, artistic techniques, and mythological images among the population that created them. To a large extent, the similarity is explained by the function of these items related to their genesis on the basis of undifferentiated tools for grinding and crushing. Differences in the shape of products and visual elements reflect differences in cultural traditions and mythological representations. The proposed solution to problems related to L-shaped objects is the result of studying their internal informative capabilities and contexts of existence. It seems that carrying out specific studies from the standpoint of this approach is an important argument in the discussion about the theoretical prospects for interpreting images of non - written societies, which unfolded on the pages of the journal.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 25.01.07.

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