UDC 581.9 (235.222)

E. A. Korolyuk 1, N. V. Polosmak 2

1 Central Siberian Botanical Garden SB RAS 101 Zolotodolinskaya St., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia

E-mail: L_Koroljuk@ngs.ru

2 Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS 17 Akademika Lavrentieva Ave., Novosibirsk, 630030, Russia

E-mail: polosmaknatalia@gmail.com

The article describes plant finds from the burials of the Noin-Ula burial ground in Northern Mongolia. The plant remains are most likely related to millet species (Panicum L.) or to a similar genus, Setaria Beauv. In elite Xiongnu burials, grain was used in the funeral rite as a symbol of rebirth and immortality.

Keywords: archaeological finds, plant remains, Panicum sp., Setaria sp., Xiongnu, Noin-Ula burial ground, Northern Mongolia.

Introduction

In 2006 and 2009. A Russian-Mongolian expedition to the Noin-Ula burial ground investigated two large mounds-20 and 31, dating from the end of the first century BC-the beginning of the first century AD. In addition to objects of material culture, plant remains were found in the burial chambers, the preservation of which allows us to identify samples at least up to the genus. The identification of the plants used in the funeral rite provides additional information concerning, in particular, the nature of cultural ties and worldviews of the peoples of Central Asia.

Materials and methods

The plant remains found in the burial site were of two different types. In mound 31, several cones of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), well preserved, cracked and without seeds, were found in the filling of the burial chamber, as well as several twigs, probably of some kind of birch (Betula sp.). These woody plants are common in the flora of the forest zone of Northern Mongolia and are dominants of modern vegetation types in the middle mountain belt of the Khentei Mountains. The seeds from mounds 20 and 31 are of the greatest interest. Plant remains of this type are homogeneous: mainly they are grains, there are also remnants of inflorescences. Plant material was covered with a compacted layer of no more than 0.5 cm thick felt carpet on the wooden floor of the burial chamber in mound 20 and wool cloth, which was covered with the floor of the burial chamber in mound 31. Plant remains are presented in the form of coarsely threshed grain (not cereals).

Initially, the remains were identified by us as grains of cereals, despite the fact that they were poorly preserved, dark black-brown in color and deformed (Fig. 1). Judging by the shape (close to spherical) and taking into account quantitative criteria-

Research supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project N 08 - 04 - 01021.

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in addition to fruit, it could not be grains of rice, corn, rye, wheat, oats or barley-the main cultivated cereals or some wild cereals. The seeds found in the burials belong to the modern tribes of millet - Paniceae or sorghum-Andropogoneae. All archaeological material was thoroughly washed and dried (Figs. 2-5). For comparative analysis, we reviewed herbarium collections of the All-Russian Institute of Plant Production of the Russian Academy of Sciences (WIR) and selected grains of some plant species from different growing areas as standards. Vegetative and generative features of plants are of great systematic importance for their determination. We had only poorly preserved remains of grains without other vegetative and generative parts of plants, so the identification of archaeological material could be carried out only by surface signs of grains and some quantitative indicators of their shape. Zernovka (caryopsis) is a special, non - opening fruit in which the pericarp and strongly reduced seed peel are so tightly adjacent to each other that they are often separated only by the cuticle layer formed as a result of the adhesion of the surface cuticles of the endocarp and exotestes [Bobrov, Melikyan,

Fig. 1. Unwashed compressed samples from the burial mounds. 20 Noin-Ula burial ground.

Fig. 2. Washed grain residues from mounds. 20 Noin-Ula burial ground.

Fig. 3. Remains of inflorescence with seeds from mounds. 20 Noin-Ula burial ground.

Fig. 4. The surface of a grain of maximally good preservation from mounds. 20 Noin-Ula burial ground.

Fig. 5. Washed remains of grain grains from mound 31 of the Noin-Ula burial ground.

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Fig. 6. Seeds of Panicum miliaceum L. ssp. effusum All. (modern material, Mongolia (WIR), different magnification).

Romanov, 2009]. It should be noted that the shape of the grain, the features of the ventral side, the shape of the rib-all these features are of great systematic importance, but, unfortunately, only in combination with others do they allow us to accurately identify the material to the level of the species. Therefore, we analyzed the morphological macro - and microcharacteristics of the grain surface (about 60 samples of six species) for some of the cultivated species of millet, sorghum, hedgehog, and bristleberry from different regions of Asia. During the comparative analysis, the Discovery V12 microscope and the Axio vision 3.7 image analysis and input software, as well as the Hitachi-TM desktop scanning electron microscope, were used.

The origin of the seeds found in the Xiongnu burial can be associated with both the territory of Northern Mongolia, suitable for agriculture, and agricultural China. In addition, it should be borne in mind that during the period under review, the Xiongnu had contacts with the regions of Eastern Turkestan, Central and Western Asia, and Northwestern India. From there, various types of cereals could also be brought: sown millet, chicken millet, paniculate millet (chumiza) and Italian millet (mogar), sorghum, so-called Tajik millet, or kurmak, ak-dzhugara, etc. All these listed "ordinary" names refer to different botanical not only species (sometimes varieties or groups of varieties), but also genera.

We compared the microcharacteristics of the grain surface of several species of genera that could have been buried.

The millet genus is Panicum L. Annual or perennial plants, herbaceous, 30 - 100 (160) cm high. More than 500 species are distributed in tropical and subtropical, partly moderately warm territories in both hemispheres, most of the species are represented in the Americas. Panicum miliaceum L. (Tsvelev, 1976), one of the oldest and most widely used cultivated plants, belongs to this genus. Millet groats (millet), millet flour, the hop drink buzu, and alcohol are obtained from grain. This species is considered to be the most ancient grain of China (Houyuan Lua et al., 2009). A very drought-resistant crop, it consumes half as much water as wheat, its growing season is 60-120 days, but it is demanding for heat, especially seedlings [Vekhov, Gubanov, Lebedeva, 1978]. We analyzed samples of P. miliaceum L. from different Asian regions (Afghanistan, Iran, Mongolia) (Fig.

Sorghum Moench, a genus of sorghum; approx. 50 species. Cultivated species are quite drought-resistant and productive. Grain is used as fodder for livestock, for the production of cereals, flour. From the so-called sugar varieties, molasses and sweet syrup are obtained.

S. saccharatum (L.) Moench-sugar sorghum, cultivated in many extratropical countries of both hemispheres mainly as a fodder plant.

S. durra (Forsk.) Stapf - durra sorghum and S. bicolor (L.) Moench-bicolor sorghum, cultivated as a fodder and food plant in Europe, Central and Near Asia, India, China, Japan.

Setaria Beauv. is a genus of bristleweed; some authors consider the main cultivated species within the genus Panicum. Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. (syn. Panicum italicum L.) - Italian bristle. It is cultivated as a forage plant under the name "mogar", more cultivated varieties under the names" chumiza "and" gomi " are bred mainly for grain. According to some sources, one of the ancient bread plants of China. The culture is thermophilic, drought-resistant and heat-tolerant [Ibid.]. One of the samples studied by us comes from Central Asia (Fig. 7).

S. glauca (L.) Beauv. (syn. Panicum glaucum L.) - glaucous bristleweed, a hardy weed. The grains can be used as feed for poultry.

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7. Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. (modern material, Pamir, Panj (WIR)), a -fragment of inflorescence; b - grain.

S. viridis (L.) Beauv. - green bristleweed, a hardy weed. Habitually similar to S. italica (L.) Beauv.; differences in inflorescence characteristics.

The genus ezhovnik-Echinochloe Beauv.; has about 20 species. It is distributed in countries with tropical, subtropical, and partly temperate climates in both hemispheres. Two species (E. frumentaceae Link-bread hedgehog and E. utilis Ohwi et Yabuno-cultivated hedgehog, or Japanese millet) are quite widely cultivated in Asia and Africa, used for cereals, green fodder mass and grain. The widespread species Echinochloe crus-galli (L.) Beauv. s. l. is a hardy weed.

The analyzed material suggests that the plant remains of seeds found in mounds 20 and 31 of the Noin-Ula burial ground belong either to millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) or to some species of a similar genus-Setaria.

Morphological features of the ultrasculpture of the pericarp of the grain and flower scales are successfully used for taxonomy purposes by a number of researchers (Nikolaevskaya and Petrova, 1989). Photos of the seeds taken with a scanning electron microscope (Figure 8) clearly show two different structures (the surface of the upper flower scales and the lower pericarp (exocarp)). the fruits of the modern

8. Surface structure of the cuticle layers of grains.

a-Panicum miliaceum, Mongolia (WIP), scanning microscope, *200; b - grain from mound 31, scanning microscope, *500; c-Setaria italica, Pamir, Panj (WIR), scanning microscope, *250.

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in the case of the species of these tribes, one flower scale fuses with the grain) and only one structure is found in fruits from archaeological material. They differ in their relief ("pattern"), which is determined by the location and configuration of cells, the shape and relief of the outer walls of cells, epicuticular deposits, and the presence/absence of specialized cells. In this case, from our point of view, it is necessary to compare the ultrasculpture of the surfaces of grains of archaeological material and flower scales of modern fruits. It was found that the seeds from the mounds are more similar to Setaria italica than to Panicum miliaceum. However, it is difficult to accurately attribute the grains found in the mounds to one of these species, since the epidermis of the pericarp can differ significantly at different stages of development and in different areas of the grains: the number and distribution of the epicuticular layer can change, etc. Most researchers face similar difficulties. For example, Chinese scientists have previously attempted to unify the methodology for determining the archaeological material of millet or chumiz grains (Liu Zhangjiang and Kun Zhaochen, 2004). They, as well as we, conducted morphological studies of grains of various modern millet and chumiz species using a scanning electron microscope. In addition, Chinese experts applied the method of artificial carbonation of grains of modern material and revealed the similarity-difference of their surface. However, after testing the methods, they found that a more reliable way to identify the comparison of diagnostic signs of the shape and size of grains, even deformed as a result of prolonged stay underground or subjected to carbonation. Our research has also confirmed that in the comparative analysis of modern and archaeological materials on statistically unreliable material, identification to the level of a species based on the sculpture of the surface of flower scales and (or) pericarp is not reliable.

Grain in the graves nomads

The presence of grain in nomad burials is not surprising. It is known that grain was an important part of the gifts that Han China used to ensure peace on its borders with the Xiongnu.In Han times, chumiz, millet, wheat, barley, rice, soybeans, beans, and hemp were cultivated in China. Chumiza, a traditional culture of the Yellow River Basin, is most often indicated on models of granaries found in Han burials [Kryukov et al., 1983, p. 149]. ""Cutting chickens and cooking chumizu" was a common expression denoting the hostess's troubles before the arrival of guests " [Ibid., p. 201]. The commoner's daily food was boiled wheat. Grain, especially millet, occupied an important place in the system of ancient Chinese sacrifices. There are special vessels that were used for sacrificial millet in the ancestral temple. Millet was used to make wine intended for the gods, ancestors, and spirits [Vasiliev, 2001, p. 73].

The reason that of all the grains grown in China, the Xiongnu received mainly millet (rice is mentioned among the gifts, but it was also an expensive treat for the Chinese themselves during this period) is probably due to the ability of millet grains to be stored for a long time (important for the Xiongnu) and the unpretentiousness of the culture during cultivation (important for Han Chinese). Han grain gifts were small and most likely settled in the Shanyu headquarters (see, for example, [Kradin, 2002, p. 126]).

It is unlikely that these gifts include grain, which is found in burials and settlements of the Xiongnu. Studies have shown that millet grains from elite mounds 20 and 31 of the Noin-Ula burial ground were roughly peeled (inflorescences were found among the grains). The offerings of the imperial court were made with well-refined grain of high quality, which was especially stipulated. According to written sources, Han China used grain (in particular millet) of various degrees of purification: roughly peeled, peeled, well-peeled, and of the highest quality (Kryukov et al., 1983, p. 201). In the Han era, grain threshing was carried out on a grain grinder, which was a stone pestle on a lever driven by a foot [Ibid.]. Huan Kuan, in his treatise "The Dispute about salt and Iron" - the most important source of information on the ideology, history and culture of Western Han, comparing the modest customs of antiquity with modern ones, along with other excesses that have appeared in society, lists dishes made from well-boiled, peeled grain of high quality [2001, vol. 2 p. 91].

The rough-shelled grain found in Xiongnu burials may have been grown in Mongolia, possibly also captured as war booty, or exchanged in border markets.

A. P. Okladnikov believed that " up to the recent past, agriculture in Mongolia existed only in areas that were directly influenced by the Chinese. In other places, where the native Mongolian pastoral culture prevailed and ancient traditions were firmly preserved, agriculture was so alien to the Mongols that it was considered dangerous to dig up the land at all... needs

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in plant food, they were satisfied with gathering" [1962, p. 424-425]. Grain could also have been grown, according to A. P. Okladnikov, based on archaeological and written sources, in "agricultural colonies" where Chinese prisoners lived [Ibid., p. 431]. T. Barfield's statement also agrees with this opinion: "Grain could be partly grown in the steppe. But early frosts in Mongolia made its production questionable. Grain cultivation is also incompatible with nomadic movements, although a part of the population (or Chinese captives in some periods) may have been engaged in this task" [2008, p.24]. Studies of ancient settlements located on territories that once belonged to the Xiongnu, in particular, Ivolginsky in Transbaikalia, show that its inhabitants (not Xiongnu, but prisoners of war and defectors) cultivated the land and, under favorable circumstances, could supply most of the local nomads with grain (Kradin, 2002, pp. 90-91). The Wuhuan tribes subordinate to the Xiongnu were engaged in agriculture. It is known that they sowed millet [Bichurin, 1950, p.143], part of the harvest of which, along with skins and sheepskins, could go to the Xiongnu as tribute. In the history of their relations with the Han, there are periods when markets were opened at border outposts that were favorable to the Xiongnu and allowed the broad strata of the nomadic population to meet the needs for grain. Another way for nomads to get the necessary grain is by raiding Chinese border settlements. The raids were usually carried out after the harvest: "when the harvest is ripe, we will send cavalry to harvest it!" - they threatened the Xiongnu [Sima Qian, 2002, p. 337].

Conclusion

Millet grains in elite Xiongnu burials were scattered on the carpet covering the floor of the inner burial chamber, and covered the bedding inside the coffin. In the mound. 23 of the Noin-Ula burial ground, millet grains were found in the "clay mud" that filled the burial chamber (Rudenko, 1962, p. 196), i.e. scattered on the floor. In one of the most studied burials of the Gol-Mod T1 burial ground (Archangay Aimag), which was investigated by the French-Mongolian expedition, the floor of the burial chamber was covered with millet or Indian hemp grains (it is not easy to determine the differences visually) [Delacour et al., 2003, p. 165]. One gets the impression that millet is present in these burials not as food, as it was, for example, in border 40 of the Cheryomukhovaya Pad burial ground (Transbaikalia), where "millet preserved in the form of grain husks" was kept in a clay pot [Konovalov, 1976, p. 40], but as a symbol. Roughly refined Xiongnu grain was used in the funeral rite in the same way as the Han Chinese: it was scattered on the floor of the burial chamber, directly under the coffin, or on the bottom of the coffin itself. For example, in the description of one of the burials of the Han Era in the prov. Hubei millet layer (0.03 m) is marked inside the coffin [Brief report on excavations..., 1981, p. 31].

The special role of millet is due to the fact that it was one of the most ancient domesticated grain crops in China. According to the results of recent interdisciplinary studies, millet cultivation began here about 10 thousand years ago (Liu Zhangjiang and Kun Zhaochen, 2004). Such an early domestication of this cereal in this region is explained by the fact that millet is the most drought-resistant crop among cereals, it quickly yields a crop, and can be cultivated on poor soils. In ancient Chinese mythology, the image of the progenitor of the Zhou tribe is known - the deity of grain and the patron saint of agriculture Houji, who was called the Lord of Millet, the God of Millet. The monument "Interpretation of rites and customs" says: "Millet dominates all breads. There are too many different types of bread / cereals, and you can't make sacrifices for everyone. Therefore they have chosen Millet and offer sacrifices to it" (cit. by: [Yanshina, 1984, p. 71]). Often in ancient texts, the god of millet is identified with millet itself. Perhaps this is why millet was associated with the idea of immortality. In the "Catalog of Mountains and Seas", the most important source of natural science knowledge, mythology and ethnography of China in the IV-I centuries BC., the Millet Lake, into which the river of Immortality flows, appears [1977, p. 41].

Grain was placed in the grave in order to revive the deceased. "Plant life, which is revived through visible disappearance (when seeds are buried in the ground), gives a person an example and hope: the same can happen to the souls of the dead" [Eliade, 1999, p.330]. From Chinese culture, the Xiongnu adopted not only a special attitude to millet, but also many other traditions that were reflected in the funeral rite of the Xiongnu elite [Polos'mak et al., 2008, N 2, N 4].

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the staff of the All-Russian Institute of Crop Production of the Russian Academy of Sciences Candidate of Agricultural Sciences. biol. Sci. I. G. Chukhina and Dr. biol. sci. T. N. Smekalova for the opportunity to work with the stock herbarium collections and a benevolent attitude. Special thanks are due to A. A. Krasnikov, Head of the "Center for Collective Use of Microscopic Studies of the CSBS SB RAS". We thank the Candidate of Historical Sciences of the Academy of Sciences. Chistyakov for translating articles from Chinese.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 11.02.10.

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