For more than 9,000 years, the seal was an important food source for hunters, fishermen and pastoralists who inhabited the coast of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal, which is confirmed by the frequent presence of bones of this animal in settlements of the Holocene period. This paper presents new and generalized previously known materials that indicate that the seal was also an object of artistic representation (petroglyphs, small sculpture). In addition, the bones of this animal served as raw materials for the manufacture of products. Neolithic and Bronze Age hunters and fishermen put parts of seal carcasses in burials. Since the Iron Age, pastoralists have used the seal together with other animals in ritual and sacrificial practices.

Keywords: Lake Baikal, Baikal region, seal, animal images, perception, Holocene.

Introduction

The Baikal seal, Phoca sibirica Gmelin , is the only seal species in Eastern Siberia that lives in the fresh water of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal, located at a distance of more than 1000 km from the nearest pinniped populations. This animal is also unique in its archaeological history. It has been one of the most important sources of food for the population of the Baikal coast since more than 9,000 BC (calibrated date). This is confirmed by numerous bone remains of seal seals in settlement complexes (Goryunova, Ovodov, and Novikov, 2007; Nomokonova and Losey, 2013; Weber et al., 1998), as well as by the results of stable isotope analyses performed on the bones of people buried in Middle Holocene burial grounds (Katzenberg et al., 2010; Weber et al.., 2011]. Seal seals were obtained not only by hunters and fishermen living in the Baikal region, but also by pastoralists who migrated here during the late Holocene and whose economic activity was mainly associated with domestic animals (Nomokonova et al., 2010). Seal hunt continued-

This work was supported by SSHRC grants 430 - 2012 - 0099 and 410 - 2008 - 0402, MCRI 412 - 2011 - 1001, Gerda Henkel Stiftung AZ 20 / ZA / 07.

Figure 1. Map-layout of the archaeological sites considered in the article. 1-Malaya Ludar cave; 2 - Shishkinskie pisanitsy; 3 - Ulyarba II, Khuzhir-Nuge VII, XII and XIV, Sagan-Nuge III, Shrakshura I, Bazarnaya II; 4 - Tonta; 5-Sagan-Zaba II; 6-Shumilikha; 7-Idan; 8-Locomotive; 9 - Smorodovaya Pad; 10-Shamanka P.

It was also used in the ethno-historical period by the Evenki, Buryat, and Russian populations of the Baikal coast, especially from the 17th to the 20th centuries, when it was of commercial importance and was aimed at extracting the skins and fat of these animals (Zhambalova, 1984; Levin, 1897; Pastukhov, 1993; Nomokonova et al., 2013).

The image of a seal, although quite rare, is still found in petroglyphs and sculpture of small forms. These images suggest how the seal was perceived by the population of the Baikal region in the past, which is proposed for discussion in this paper.

On the one hand, we use previously known images of the seal to illustrate knowledge about it and its behavioral characteristics. On the other hand, new data obtained as a result of zooarchaeological studies in the Baikal region over the past decade on the presence of seal bones and teeth not only in settlement complexes, but also in the burials of hunters and fishermen, stone ritual-sacrificial structures of pastoralists, as well as caves are presented. These data allow us to trace how the seal was perceived by the population of the Baikal region in different periods of the Holocene.

Material Description

Images of seals. Compared to images of humans and ungulates [Okladnikov, 1966; Studzitskaya. 1987], the image of the seal on pisanitsy and in sculpture of small forms in the Baikal region is quite rare. Currently, six sites are known: petroglyphs on the Shishkin rocks, Malaya Ludarskaya Cave, two burial grounds - Idan and Shamanka II, two settlements-Smorodovaya Pad and Sagan-Zaba II (Fig. 1). These objects belong to the periods from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, mainly associated with the Middle Holocene. Dating most of the finds of interest to us remains problematic, as many seal sculptures were found in chronologically mixed complexes, and a number of collections are currently not available for research. Despite the small number of images of the seal, they provide interesting information about the worldview of the ancient population of the Baikal region.

Images of seals in rock carvings are known only at one locality - Shishkinskie Pisanitsy, located on the right bank of the Lena River, 225 km northeast of Irkutsk (Figs. 1, 2) [Vetrov, Melnikova, Svinin, 1990; Melnikova, 1992; Melnikova, Nikolaev, Demyanovich. 2012, p. 92-93, 99]. These drawings, probably dating back to the Bronze Age, are made in a combined technique (wiping + polishing + engraving). Animals are depicted vertically (head up), in full growth, the height of the figures is up to 60 cm, the width is up to 20 cm. The spindle-shaped body, small narrow muzzle, eyes, mouth and flippers are quite detailed, but at the same time stylized. The ancient artist conveyed some degree of curiosity of the animals, probably during their peeking out of the water (Figs. 2, 3). These drawings are distinguished not only by their subject matter and image style, but also by their location. Shishkinskie Pisanitsy is located about 130 km north-west of the lake. Baikal, where seals live. This plot is absent from the Baikal and Angara petroglyphs (Okladnikov, 1966, 1974).

There is a known image of a seal on a pebble (28 cm long) in the form of a phallus (Fig. 2, b). It was found near the entrance to the Malaya Ludarskaya Cave, located on Northern Baikal, 480 km northeast of Irkutsk (see Figures 1, 1). The pebbles were recorded in the compression layer of the Neolithic - Early Iron Age together with stone arrowheads, flakes and fragments of vessels with impressions of cord and netting. [Khlobystin, 1964]. The full seal figure (length 4.5 cm) in profile is carved on the wide end of the pebble and is oriented with its head towards the narrow end (the head of the phallus). Well-drawn eyes, moustaches and flippers. The seal is depicted in the observation position, when the animal lies on ice or on rocks and examines the environment (see Figures 2, 10, 14).

Two small sculptures of seal seals were found at the Idan burial ground and the Smorodovaya Pad site. Burial ground

2. Ancient images of seal seals and modern animals.

1-Smorodovaya Pad; 2 - Idan; 3-Shishkinskie pisanitsy; 4-Sagan-Zaba II; 5-Shamanka II; 6-Malaya Ludarskaya cave;

7-14-photos of seal seals from the photo archive of V. V. Pastukhov in the 1960s-1980s, provided by his son M. V. Pastukhov.

Idan is located 39 km north-west of Irkutsk on the bank of the Angara River, about 90 km from the lake. 1, 7). A seal figurine (11.3 cm long) carved from bone or horn was found 5 m away from a Late Bronze Age burial site excavated in 1956 (Rygdylonsky et al., 1958). The animal is shown in profile. The head with an elongated muzzle and front flippers are well modeled (see Figures 2, 2). Round eyes are shown, the mouth is drawn, and the nose is highlighted. From the head tilt and general posture of the seal, it can be assumed that the animal is depicted in a sleeping state (dormant), which is often observed on seal deposits on ice in spring or on rocks in summer (see Figure 2.11).

The second sculpture was found in a mixed Neolithic - Bronze Age layer of excavation 1 at the Smorodovaya Pad site, located on the southwestern coast of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal, 65 km south-east of Irkutsk (see Figures 1, 9) (Kushnareva and Khlopin, 1992). The figure made of black stone (length 4.6 cm) is made schematically. Its sides and abdomen are marked with incisions located obliquely to the main axis (see Figure 2.1). Judging by the general outline and eye position, the animal is shown from the back (top view), in an elongated pose, similar to the position of a seal swimming in water, when only its head and part of its body are visible (see Figs. 2, 9).

Two sculptural images of seal heads are carved on the ends of the handles. One of them comes from the Neolithic border 18 burial ground Shamanka II, located on the southern tip of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal, 75 km southwest of Irkutsk (see Figures 1, 10). The product was found in the destroyed burial site of a 20-25 - year-old man, near his pelvic bone (Bazaliyskiy et al., 2006). The image of a seal's head (length 15 cm) is perpendicular to the handle rod. It is made in a realistic manner, showing round eyes, dilated nostrils, and the characteristic shape of the head (see Fig. 2, 5, 7, 12, 13).

The second image was found in Neolithic layer III of the Sagan-Zaba II site (excavations by A. P. Okladnikov in 1974) [Okladnikov, 1975; Goryunova, Novi-

kov, 2012], located on the western coast of Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal, 155 km east-northeast of Irkutsk (see Figures 1, 5). The handle of a horn spoon with a length of 9.4 cm is made in the form of an elongated neck and a seal's head in relief (see Figures 2, 4). The handle is separated from the spoon reservoir by small symmetrical protrusions. The image is schematic, showing a certain forward movement of the head - a possible pose of a swimming seal (see Figs. 2, 9).

Seal remains in the burials of hunters and fishermen. On the territory of the Baikal region, 11 burials are known (on five burial grounds), which contained teeth, seal bones and products made from them (Table. 1; fig. 3, 4). Eight of them belong to the Early Neolithic period: at the Lokomotiv burial grounds, located on the territory of Irkutsk, 53 km northwest of Lake Baikal. 1,8), and Shamanka P., mentioned above. At the first site, in two burials of a man (N 30) and a woman (N 39), one half of a seal's tusk split in half was found, which were located in clusters of articles behind the skulls of the buried. On Shamanka II, similar finds were found in four burials (N 18, 23, 78, 83) (see Fig. 4, 1 - 4, 8), in one (N 71) - seal phalanx. Unfortunately, these burials are completely or partially destroyed, so the original position of the remains of seal seals in the graves remains unclear. An exception is grave site 46 (a 25 - 29-year-old man was buried), where the ulna and tibia of a seal were found, located in the area of the skull, and the tibia lying to the right of the kneecap of the buried person (see Figs. 3, 3).

The other three burials belong to the Bronze Age. Two of them are partially destroyed in ancient times burials at the burial grounds of Khuzhir-Nuge XIV (border 36), Ulyarba II (border 36). 3), located in the same name bays of the Small Sea of Lake Baikal. 1,3), respectively 193 and 188 km northeast of Irkutsk (Goryunova et al., 2004; Novikov, Weber, and Goryunova, 2010; Khuzhir-Nuge XIV..., 2008). In border 3 (Khuzhir-Nuge XIV), the right lower jaw of a seal with two canines (right and left) was found, which was recorded in a grave pit on the floor slabs above the right femur of a person (see Figs. 3, 2) . In border 36 (Ulyarba II), where a 20-year-old woman was buried, at the foot of vertically standing slabs (the southwestern end of the grave pit, above the burial level), two radial and ulnar bones of seals, both adult and under one year old, were found (see Figs. 3, 4). The radius of an adult has traces of cuts from cutting. The third burial site is pogr. 25 in the Shumilikha burial ground, located on the left bank of the Angara River, 76 km northwest of Irkutsk and 136 km from Lake Baikal. 1, 6) [Bronze Age..., 1981]. A 35-50 - year-old man was buried in a sitting position, in a crouched position, facing east (towards the river). Among the accompanying inventory located in the area

Table 1. Seal bones and teeth from the burials of hunters and fishermen

* Calibrated values.

3. Layout of seal bones and teeth in burials. 1-Shumilikha (border 25); 2 - Khuzhir-Nouge XIV (border 25). 3); 3-Shamanka II (border 46); 4-Ulyarba II (border 36).

right shoulder and left knee, two adult seal baculums were found (see Fig. 3, 1; 4, 11, 12). The end of one of them is worked out by a straight cut, forming the working edge of a chisel-type tool.

Items made from seal bones and teeth. Several such items are known in the Baikal region (see Fig. 4), among which the above-mentioned 14 split canines from the Neolithic burial grounds of Lokomotiv and Shamanka II and a part-time bakulum from the Bronze Age burial of Shumilikha. Another seal bone item was found at the Sagan-Zaba II settlement in materials from the Upper layer III (excavated in 2007), which dates back to the Iron Age (Nomokonova et al., 2010). In shape, it resembles a spoon cut from the left shoulder blade, in the neck of which a hole is drilled for hanging (see Figs. 4, 10).

In the Tonta cave, located 160 km east-northeast of Irkutsk and 12 km from Lake Baikal. 1, 4), in the compression layer of the Neolithic - ethno-historical time, four seal bones were found (pit 1, 1989) (Goryunova and Cheremisin, 2000): the right astragalus, the left fourth metatarsal, and two adult phalanges; all with drilled holes, except for the metatarsal, on which drilling was not performed. until the end, there is only a dimple (see fig. 4, 5 - 7, 9).

Seal bones in ritual-sacrificial sooru-pastoralists. In the area of the Small Sea lake. Lake Baikal (see Figs. 1, 3) there are often tent-shaped and flat masonry structures that are considered ritual,

4. Items made from seal teeth and bones. 1-4, 8-Shamanka II; 5-7, 9-Tonta; 10 - Sagan-Zaba II; 11, 12-Shumilikha.

Table 2. Seal bones from ritual and sacrificial stone structures

* Калиброванные значения.

memorial or sacrificial structures (Dashibalov, 1995; Kharinsky, 2002; Nomoyunova and Goryunova, 2013a) of the Iron Age - ethno-historical time (Nomoyunova and Goryunova, 2013a, b). Seal bones were found in hipped masonry N 2 of Khuzhir-Nuge XII and flat masonry N 5, 6 of Khuzhir-Nuge VII, N 1, 3 of Sagan-Nuge III, N 1, 2 of Shrakshura I and N 5 of Bazarnaya II (tab. 2), the presence of which is unusual for such ritual-sacrificial structures, since they usually contain the bone remains of domestic animals, which are the basis of cattle breeding.

In hipped masonry N 2 Khuzhir-Nouge XII [Nomoyunova, 2002], dating from the VI-VII centuries AD, an astragalus and a phalanx of the hind limb of an adult seal were found between the plates and in the ash pit located at its north-eastern end.

In flat continuous and circular structures of the X - mid - XX century AD, seal bones are present in a small number-from one to seven, which is 0.05-1.60 % of the total number of faunal remains. They are found among the slabs, under them and sometimes in bonfires and ash pits located under the masonry. As a rule, each structure contains the bones of one seal, with the exception of masonry No. 6 of Khuzhir-Nuge VII and No. 1 of Shrakshura I, where the remains of two and three individuals were found, respectively. The latter contained bones from one mature seal and two under the age of one year. The remaining clutches are dominated by the remains of adults. As for the parts of carcasses left in the altars, these are the head, limbs and flippers.

In masonry No. 1 of Shrakshura I, there are traces of burning on the tibia and cuts on the phalanx.

Discussion

Archaeological evidence shows that the seal played a role in the life of the population of the Baikal region during the Holocene. It was not only a source of food, but also an animal worthy of being depicted, used in funerary rites and ritual sacrificial practices. Detailed knowledge about the seal and its behavior is reflected in the visual art. The sculptures and drawings studied vary in style, detail, and accuracy. The most realistic images are those of seals from the Malaya Ludar Cave and the Idan burial ground. The animals are shown in profile, and the outlines of their bodies, heads, eyes, and flippers are carefully rendered. The sculptural image of a seal's head from page 18 of Shamanka P. Stands out for its realism. The figures from Smorodovaya Padi and Sagan-Zaba II are more schematically made, but they also convey the main features of the image, possibly of a swimming seal. These images of seal seals are etiologically significant, as they show people's detailed knowledge of the animal's postures in water, on ice, or on rocks in a calm state, sleeping, or warily surveying their surroundings (see Figures 2, 7-14).

In rock paintings, the main features of the animal (spindle-shaped body, small narrow neck) are shown.

muzzle, flippers, etc.) are combined with stylization of the image, a kind of mythicality, especially clearly expressed in additional images of larvae and eyes-larvae on the bodies of three seals on Shishkin's scribbles (see Figs. 2, 3). Such stylization of animal images is found mainly in the visual art of the Bronze Age population of Siberia and is considered one of the characteristic features of the art of this period [Studzitskaya, 1987].

Interestingly, a number of sculptural images of seals were found at a considerable distance from the lake. Baikal is its main habitat. Consequently, this animal was well known to residents not only of the Baikal coast, but also beyond its borders. So, in the Angara region, the Neolithic and Bronze Age population realistically conveyed the image of a seal. At the same time, at the farthest distance from Lake Baikal - the Shishkin Rocks, images of seals lose some of their real features. Perhaps they were drawn from memory, based on impressions of these animals, or according to existing ideas about the environment.

In some cases, items made from seal teeth and bones, as well as parts of carcasses, were used in the funeral rite; however, some variations are noted. Split seal tusks were often placed in the grave along with other items near the heads of dead men and women, as, for example, at the Neolithic Locomotive burial ground. Parts of seal carcasses (fins, forelimbs, and hind limbs) were reserved only for men aged 25-45 years (burials 46 and 71 of Shamanka II), possibly as memorial food.

The situation changes somewhat in the Bronze Age. Seal bones were found mostly not next to the buried, but on the slabs covering their graves. One of these burials belonged to a 20-year-old woman (Ulyarba II, page 36), which indicates that the seal was also used as a memorial food for women. Two bakulums were found in the burial of a 35-50 - year-old man in the Shumilikha burial ground. Probably, they symbolize the identification of male seals with masculine qualities. The same is obviously evidenced by the image of this animal on a pebble, made in the form of a phallus, from the Small Ludar Cave. Here it is interesting not only the presence of the seal figure on the object identified with the male sexual organ, but also its presence near the cave. According to the traditional ideas of the Buryats, the cave is the habitat of the ancestors, and the entrance to it is associated with the female genital organ. People came there to honor their ancestors and get the opportunity to give birth to a child (Batoeva et al., 2002). The presence of seal fin bone pendants in Tonta Cave may be related to the veneration of the ancestors by offering them their amulets.

In general, sculptural and graphic images of the seal, products made from its teeth and bones found in human graves, caves and ritual-sacrificial masonry show that this image was perceived as a kind of symbolic container of qualities associated with the behavioral characteristics of the seal, which can be used to obtain them through its teeth and bones as amulets and amulets. amulets that are widely distributed among the peoples of Siberia and are often associated with health, well-being, and success in hunting (Galdanova, 1987; Mazin, 1984; Hill, 2011). The seal could also be used for sacrifices to the spirits of the area, ancestors, and also as a memorial food.

Conclusion

Based on the analysis of images of seal seals, as well as zooarchaeological studies, we can see different trends in the perception of this animal by the population of the Baikal region from the early Neolithic to the ethno-historical time. For example, Neolithic and Bronze Age hunters and fishermen depicted the seal on rocks, carved sculptures of it from horn and stone, used seal tusks and bakulum to make products, and in some cases put parts of its carcasses and sculptural images together with the buried person. This population had a detailed understanding of the behavioral characteristics of the animal, which is clearly visible in the images of the seal created by them. Pastoralists of the late Holocene continued the traditions of hunters and fishermen of the Baikal region in making products from seal bones (for example, at the Sagan-Zaba II site), but no longer put parts of the carcasses of this animal in human burials, but used the seal only in ritual sacrificial practice along with other animals.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 15.08.13, in the final version-on 01.10.13.

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