UDC 904 + 902.01

N. P. Dovgalyuk ¹, L. V. Tataurova ^1,2 1 Omsk State University named after F. M. Dostoevsky 55a Mira Ave., Omsk, 644077, Russia

E-mail: batakowo@rambler.ru

² Omsk Branch of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS 28 Andrianova St., Omsk, 644077, Russia

Omsk State University named after F. M. Dostoevsky 55a Mira Ave., Omsk, 644077, Russia

E-mail: LiST@hist.omsu.omskreg.ru

The article offers a systematic approach to the study of glass ornaments of the XVII-XVIII centuries based on the materials of archaeological collections from rural settlements of the Middle Irtysh region. Based on the analysis of morphology, technology and chemical composition, the origin of the beads is determined. The directions of trade relations are revealed.

Keywords: glass beads, technology, glass composition, production centers, Western Siberia, Russian rural settlements, trade relations.

Introduction

The trade relations of the Russian population of Western Siberia in the XVII-XVIII centuries were repeatedly studied both with the involvement of written sources and on the basis of archaeological materials. In this territory, glass ornaments have been imported from ancient times to modern times. They serve as a reliable source for reconstructing the directions of trade contacts. Late medieval glass beads rarely appear as an independent object of study. In the publications of materials of monuments, the authors only address issues related to beads: the type of beads is determined by material, shape, ornament and color; the main research methods are classification and search for analogies by morphological features. Establishing the place of production of beads, as a rule, is not part of the task of the authors.

Many observations have been accumulated in the study of glass beads found in layers of the XV-XVIII centuries, but only the first steps have been taken in the systematic study. In this connection, it is necessary to mention specially studied collections of Late Medieval beads from monuments of the indigenous population of Western Siberia, Moscow, Amsterdam, and the Indians of northeastern Canada [Kidd K. E., Kidd M. A., 1970; Wan der Sleen, 1973; Karklins, 1993; Dovgalyuk, 1994, 1997; Wexler, Lichter, and Osipov, 2000; Wexler and Lichter, 2008].

The focus of our attention will be beads from three Russian rural monuments in the Middle Irtysh region: Ananyino I, Izyuk I, and Lokti I. Basic items that gave you a representative collection of your mother's items-

a complex (settlement and burial ground)can be considered an alternative culture Izyuk I in Bolsherechenskiy district of Omsk region. The village of Izyuk (founded in 1648) was located on the right bank of the Irtysh River, opposite the modern village of Yevhashchyna. The research was carried out by L. V. Tataurova in 1999-2004 on an area of 1805 ^m2. The coins found date back to 1726, 1840, and 1891. Approximately 2,000 items and a large amount of pottery were found in the settlement layer. The most interesting finds are body crosses from burials, arrowheads (bone, iron), pulleika, glass beads, bone scallops, fragments of millstones, products made of wood, bark and birch bark (tuesques, floats, knife scabbards, toys), leather shoes and its fragments, iron knives, fish hooks. Five residential and four outbuildings were studied. In the cemetery located within the boundaries of the settlement, 264 funerary objects were examined (Tataurova, 2005).

The Ananyino I complex (settlement and burial ground) is located in the Tarsky district of the Omsk region, 60 km north of Izyuk and 15 km from the city of Tara. The village of Ananyino, known from written sources since 1624*, survived to the beginning of the XX century. It was located on the southern shore of the lake of the same name, the Irtysh staritsa. 360 ^m2 in the settlement and 200 ^m2 in the cemetery were examined. Four residential sites and 48 burials were studied. Collected 320 finds that characterize different types of activities: bone harpoon points, sinkers of various types, needles for netting, a kochedyk, a lead spinner, two wooden oars; a large number of animal bones, iron and bone arrowheads, iron knives, stirrups, bits, buckles; a fragment of a scythe, rivets from barrels. In addition, a wooden fragment of the architrave, a door key, copper crosses and coins from 1747 to 1751, lead - filled dice for playing "grandmother", pottery of traditional Russian shapes, ornamented, black and red - fleshed, etc. were found.

Later monuments of the Russian development of the Irtysh region include the settlement of Lokti I in the Nizhneomsky district of the Omsk region. It can be called an archaeological complex conditionally, since we have investigated the cultural layer of the modern village in different parts of it with three small excavations. The village of Lokti is located on both banks of the Omi River; according to written sources, it was founded in 1720. Exploratory excavations have yielded a small but representative collection of objects of Russian material culture: coins of the XVIII-XX centuries, a clay whistle, forged nails, ceramics.

Manufacturing technology and chemical composition of glass beads from the Middle Irtysh region

Before determining the specifics of the listed monuments, it is necessary to consider the collection as a whole**.

It is small in quantity (see figure), includes beads made of glass (31 copies) and jet (1 copy), inserts made of glass (3 copies) and rock crystal (1 copy). At the settlement of Ananyino I, a rare find was discovered - half a glass ball (diameter 4.2 cm), the functional purpose of which is unknown. Most of the collection (23 beads and 4 inserts) comes from the layer of the settlement of Izyuk I, 6 and 2 beads were found on the monuments of Ananyino I and Lokti I, respectively.

Beads. The vast majority of them have a rounded shape: spherical (24 specimens), ellipsoid (2 specimens), pear-shaped (2 specimens); ellipsoid faceted and flat a small number, respectively, 2 and 1 specimens. The diameter of the beads is from 4.5 to 11.0 mm, the prevailing size is 8 - 11 mm.

Almost a third of the collection (10 copies) consists of white opaque beads. Purple-blue transparent (6 copies) and blue opaque (5 copies) are equally common. Beads made of beige, blue, gray-blue, dark orange, brown transparent glass and opaque turquoise are isolated. Almost all specimens of the studied collection are single-color, only one white bead is decorated with spots of blue opaque glass (see Figure 25).

The analysis of the bead manufacturing technology allowed us to identify eight technological schemes that can be combined into two groups: serial and individual (Table 1). The vast majority of samples are made individually, by coiling a hot glass mass around the rod or by freely forming a drop of glass with subsequent puncture of the hole (see Figure 2, 3). To give the beads a unique shape, The final shape of one of the wound beads was formed by pressing it on a plane (see Figure 6). For applying the decor, the technique of applying spots was used.

Beads made in series are drawn tubes, the final shape of which is given with the help of additional techniques. For example, for 7 copies. various methods of polishing were used: speo-polishing, running-in on a plane, "chemical polishing" (see Figure 16, 24, 36).

* Vasily Tyrkov's Patrol " - Siberian Order Book No. 5, p. 347 (see: [Bucinsky, 1999, p. 14-15]).

** The method of research of glass finds used in the study of the collection was developed by Yu. L. Shchapova [1989].

Ball (1), beads (2, 3, 6 - 8, 10 - 14, 16 - 36) and inserts (4, 5, 9, 15) from Russian complexes of the Middle Irtysh region.

1, 11, 12, 20, 32, 34, 36 - Anagnino I; 2 - 10, 14 - 19, 21 - 31, 33, 35 - Izyuk I; 13-Elbows I. 1-8, 11-36-glass; 9-rock crystal; 10-jet.

Table 1. Technological schemes for manufacturing glass beads

The latter involves placing the beads in a vessel filled with ash, followed by heating. As a result, the shape of the beads became softer. The technique of speo-polishing is described in detail by the Canadian researcher K. Karklins [Karklins, 1993]. The essence of the process is that segments of a glass tube are strung on the teeth of a speo tool and softened in the oven fire. The working part of the tool with a length of approx. 20-25 cm consisted of six teeth. Beads made in this way have a number of defects. The most characteristic of them is a clearly visible break at the hole (at one or both ends), at the place where two beads fused together and broke them. To obtain faceted shapes, segments of tubes were first pressed in a hot aggregate state on a plane, and then, after cooling, ground (see Figure 7, 8).

The chemical composition of 11 beads was studied by optical emission-spectral analysis in the Laboratory of Archaeological Technology of the Institute of Archaeological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences (analyst, Candidate of Technical Sciences A. N. Yegorkov).*. The samples studied can be classified into four classes:: Na2o-SiO2, Na2o-CaO-SiO2, Na2o-PbO-SiO2, and K2o-CaO-SiO2 (Tables 2, 3). The glass was made from alkaline raw materials containing sodium and potassium compounds. According to the content of alkali metal oxides, two groups are distinguished: with a significant predominance of sodium and potassium. Ash from continental plants was used for the production of potassium-sodium glass, and ash from desert plants was used for the production of sodium-sodium glass: in three cases

* The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank A. N. Yegorkov for his analysis.

Table 2. Chemical composition of glass

Table 3. Main glass-forming and auxiliary materials used for glass production

in some cases, it is potashnik (Calidium caspicum), in four - soleros (Salicornia herbacea)*.

Glass of the Na2o-PbO-SiO2 class is characterized by a high lead content (40 %). Adding this metal to the glass mass reduces the viscosity and reduces the cooling rate. As glassmakers say, glass becomes long, which makes it possible to use it for the manufacture of semi-finished products [Galibin, 2001, p. 19].

All types of auxiliary materials used by ancient glassmakers were found in the studied samples: dyes, discolorants, silencers (see Table 3). Copper and cobalt compounds were used for staining. Cobalt compounds, starting from 0.02 %, give the glass a rich violet-blue color (see Tables 3, N 5, 8). Cobalt raw materials used in ancient and medieval glassmaking had different origins. The most famous deposits are located in Iran. A distinctive feature of Iranian cobalt is the absence of noticeable impurities (more than 0.3 %) of MnO [Ibid., p. 37]. In the studied samples, the manganese content is from 0.1 to 0.2 %. Apparently, cobalt of Iranian origin was used for their staining.

The glasses painted with copper oxide have different shades of turquoise and blue (see Tables 3, N 1, 10). This compound should give a blue color, but the glass painted with it is very sensitive to redox conditions of cooking. If there is a lack of oxidizing agents, and even more so in the presence of a reducing agent, the blue color may disappear. In our case, the reducing agent is iron oxide, which reduces copper oxide to colorless nitrous oxide and even to metallic copper. Groups of atoms appear in the glass, one of which assumes a blue color, and the other - yellow. Consequently, the turquoise color indicates the presence of both groups in different ratios (Lanzetti and Nesterenko, 1972, p. 31).

When glass is boiled with the addition of coal, a part of silicon is reduced to Si⁺², which gives a brown, orange, and beige color of different intensity [Galibin, 2001, p.35]. Perhaps this is how the glass of the samples was colored. 3, 7, 9, 11, 13 ( see Table 3).

In order to make glass opaque, as a rule, in the late Middle Ages, tin and/or antimony were used. Among the samples studied, white glass was silenced with tin (see Table 3, N 12). In another sample (see Table 3, N 14), two properties of antimony were used at once: to discolor glass and to make it opaque. It should be noted that, despite the high lead content, in this case antimony was used independently, and not as part of a complex _{Pb2 Sb2o7 silencer}.

Antimony and manganese compounds were used to discolor glass in the late Middle Ages. In the absence of high concentrations of dyes and impurities, even a small amount of manganese made it possible to obtain almost colorless transparent glass with a very weak gray-blue hue. It is possible that in one case in our sample it was used as a bleaching agent (see Table 3, N 4; Figure 14).

Summary characteristics of glass beads are given in Table 4.

Inserts. The analyzed collection includes three flat glass inserts: oval, triangular, and rectangular (see Figure 4, 5, and 15). The first one is light blue semi-transparent, the second one is purple-blue transparent, and the third one is white opaque. All of them are made individually by casting on a plane. The edges of the oval insert were additionally sanded in the cold state. Glass belongs to the chemical class K2o-CaO-_SiO2, the alkaline raw material was ash from plants of the continental zone (see Table ₂, N2, 6, 15; Table 3, N2, 6, 15). Cobalt of Iranian origin was used for violet-blue staining (see Table 3, N 15).

Ball. This is a unique find for the late medieval monuments of Siberia. The ball of transparent brown glass (see Figure 1) was probably blown out using a simple shape, the so-called chisel. The hole was sealed before the tube was removed. Glass belongs to the chemical class K2o-CaO-SiO2 (see Table 2, N 13). Wood ash (potash) was used as an alkaline raw material, which is typical for European glassmaking in the XVI-XIX centuries.

Similar balloons were found in Moscow (excavations at the Manege, Chizhevsky farmstead, Zaryadye, in the Kremlin), Dmitrov, Lipetsk**. All the finds are mainly associated with layers of the XVIII century. The functional purpose of glass balls is unknown. Perhaps they were used as slingshot cores. This assumption looks somewhat fantastic, but according to finds in Moscow, the use of glass grenades in the XVII century was recorded. [Kuzina, 1994]. In addition, a stone core of similar size and shape was found next to the glass ball in the Chizhevsky farmstead. Of course, this story deserves further study. Even in the layers of large urban centers of Russia, glass balls are rare, the more obvious is the uniqueness of finding such an object in a Russian rural settlement in Western Siberia.

* The sources of alkaline and alkaline-earth raw materials were determined according to the method of T. Stawiarska (1984).

** The authors are grateful to Y. A. Likhter and E. K. Stolyarova for their oral presentation.

See Table 4. Characteristics of glass beads

Glass bead production centers in the 17th-18th centuries

Written sources record the existence of specialized workshops for the production of beads at this time in Germany, Bohemia, Holland, and Venice [Big Illustrated Encyclopedia..., 1988, pp. 133-137; Wan der Sleen, 1973, p. 100-107; Karklins, 1993]. In Germany, such workshops, where they made beads from tubes, appeared at the end of the XVI century. in Nuremberg. In Holland, in Amsterdam, at the beginning of the XVII century. there was a mass production of multicolor and monochrome

According to Karklins, the technique of speo-polishing, which originated in Murano at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries, was then introduced to other glass-making centers by resettled Venetian craftsmen. At the beginning of the 17th century, the production of beads in this technique was mastered by Amsterdam glassmakers. After analyzing written and pictorial sources, as well as an extensive collection of late Medieval beads obtained during excavations in the northeastern United States and adjacent areas of Canada, the author came to the conclusion that such beads were made from 1600 to 1817 (Karklins, 1993). The area of Amsterdam beads confirms that the main reason for the resumption of production was their use in trade with the population of newly discovered territories. Beads of Dutch origin are found in America, Canada, East and West Africa, Indonesia, the Antilles, and a small number in Europe (Wan der Sleen, 1973, p. 108-112; Karklins, 1993). In Bohemia, where glass imitations of precious stones were made in the XIV century, the production of beads and costume jewelry resumed at the end of the XVII century. According to the later main center (Yablonets), the whole branch of this production became known as Yablonets costume jewelry. Glassmakers of all these countries in the XVII century used potash, i.e. washed ash of plants of temperate climatic zones, as an alkaline raw material for making glass.

Venice in the XVII-XVIII centuries. becomes the most important center for the production of beads. Their export brought the Republic of Venice most of its income. Beads were made mainly from drawn tubes and sticks, which were also widely used in earlier times by Venetian glassmakers in the manufacture of vessels with the so-called Venetian mesh. Later, chopped beads (bugles) appeared, polished in special rotary drums. Venice's glassmaking is genetically related to the Byzantine one, which can partly explain the nature of the alkaline raw materials used. Glass-making workshops in Italy until the late Middle Ages used imported alkaline raw materials: ash with a significant predominance of sodium over potassium, i.e. ash from plants in the desert zone, and natural soda (Galibin, 2001, p. 84). For example, Biringuccio in his book" Pyrotechnics "(mid-XVI century), describing the "method of making glass" in Italian workshops, says: "... first they take ash, which is delivered from Syria" (pit. according to: [Abdurazakov, Bezborodov, Zadneprovsky, 1963, p. 185]).

Written evidence of the production of glass beads in the Middle East and Central Asia in the 17th century is not known to us. However, it can be assumed that it existed as an additional occupation in universal workshops where dishes and window glass were made. The Middle East has been linked by trade relations with Western Siberia since the Early Iron Age. Perhaps, during this period, as well as in Europe, the production of glass beads intended for the population of remote territories resumed.

Some researchers suggest that the beads from the late monuments of Western Siberia were made on the territory of European Russia (Sobolev, 1989; Melnikov and Kholostykh, 1994; Vizgalov and Parkhimovich, 2008, p.78). In the 17th century, glass manufactories appeared in Russia, the range of which included apothecary dishes, window glass, and mosaic cubes (Karzhavin, 1922; Baklanova, 1928; Zaozerskaya, 1947, p.35-40; Asharina, 1998, p. 48-52). The first references to the production of beads and glass beads, in particular, at the factory in Ust-Ruditsy, belong to the middle and second half of the XVIII century. [Bezborodov, 1948, p. 165; Zlotnikov, 1940; Tseitlin, 1939, p. 58]. During recent excavations in Moscow, the remains of a mid-eighteenth-century industrial complex were discovered. Researchers interpret it as a small workshop with an incomplete production cycle, in which beads were made from semi-finished products by winding. Production volumes were small and targeted at the local market (Wexler and Lichter, 2008). At an earlier time, there may have been a hut artisanal production of beads using primitive technologies. The products of such workshops include beads made by winding molten glass.

Glass beads in the culture of Russian settlers of Western Siberia in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Glass beads occupied a certain, but insignificant place in the late Medieval costume of the population of Western Siberia. They are found in small numbers in the monuments of both indigenous people [Molodin, 1979, p. 91-92; Pletneva, 1990, p. 96; Dovgalyuk, 1994, 1997; Bobrova, 2007, p. 66-69] and Russian immigrants [Belov, Ovsyannikov, and Starkov, 1981, p. 48-50 Vizgalov and Parkhimovich, 2008, p. 78]. It is noteworthy that the range of glass beads is quite stable and does not differ in variety. The collections are dominated by spherical and ellipsoid beads with a diameter of 5-10 mm made of opaque white, blue, turquoise and transparent violet-blue and dark orange glass. There are beads with a diameter of 3-5 mm made of white opaque or violet-blue transparent glass.

It is well known that beads are not characteristic of urban strata, but rather a sign of rural material culture (Lichter and Shchapova, 1991). For example, as a result of the work of the Center for Archaeological Research-

So far, 1,821 beads have been found at 75 different sites in Moscow, but in the vast majority of cases these are isolated finds, only at four sites there are from 12 to 30 of them and at three sites 233, 490, and 810, respectively, and the last two are interpreted as a commercial warehouse and a production complex [Wexler and Lichter, 2008]. Excavations in Mangazey in 2001 - 2004 yielded an extensive collection of glass beads, which, according to the author of the research, were the subject of trade with the aborigines [Vizgalov and Parkhimovich, 2008, p. 78]. In the materials of other monuments, beads are also isolated finds.

The studied collection from the settlements of the Middle Irtysh region confirms that beads did not play a significant role in the costume of the Russian rural population of Western Siberia, although, according to ethnographic and pictorial sources, they were an indispensable attribute of Russian women's costume [Zabylin, 2003, p. 69, 81, 147, 341; Tereshchenko, 2006, p. 76, 85, 99, 189, 210, 219, 237, 294, 301, 305, 325, 475, 609, 643, 645]. Probably, some of the beads could be used as buttons. Some specimens were probably part of other jewelry, such as earrings. Remains of metal rods were found in the channel of five beads (see figure, 16, 17, 23, 25, 31). In the Izyuk I settlement layer, six beads were found together, possibly a small necklace (see picture)., 18, 19, 26, 28 - 30).

On the territory of Western Siberia in the late Middle Ages, glass beads could come from Amsterdam, Venice and the Middle East. The main suppliers at that time were European glass-making centers, whose products reached the West Siberian market by the northern sea route and were distributed through a system of fairs. In addition, in the 17th century, a small part of the beads, possibly of Central Asian or Middle Eastern origin, arrived here with caravans from Central Asia.

Written sources indicate that only a small proportion of glass ornaments imported to the Siberian Region settled on the territory of Western Siberia, while a significant part continued its journey to the east. The main sales of beads and beads were found among the peoples of Northeast Asia, in whose festive costumes they played an important role and, accordingly, occupied a high position in the value system. This can be illustrated by the following examples: in 1640, 121 sables were bought from the Yakuts of the central volosts for 3 pounds of beads and 50 strands of odekui*; in 1643, 41 sables, a sable coat and 7 foxes were bought from the Yakuts of Kangalas, Meginsky, Betunsky, Odeysky, Malyagarsky and Galitsky volosts for 62 strands of odekui, 31 strands of odekui. beads and 19 copper buttons (Safronov, 1980, pp. 87-88). Furs were still the main purpose of trade trips to Siberia in the 17th century. Analyzing trade operations in the Siberian region, St. Bakhrushin notes that the guest Nikitin imported to Siberia, among other things, "crowns**, beads and cologne - to exchange with foreigners" [1926, p. 373].

In the early - mid-17th century, beads and beads occupied a strong place among the goods "for a foreign hand". They are also found in the list of trade items brought to the Yamyshev Fair (Safronov, 1980, p. 80; Vilkov, 1958). In the Tobolsk customs books, glass beads are mentioned among both eastern and "Russian" goods. The latter means all goods of domestic and foreign (Western European and Eastern) origin that have arrived from the European part of the state. During recent excavations in Moscow, on the territory of the Old Gostiny Dvor, a cluster of 456 glass beads of Dutch production was discovered in one of the buildings. Researchers define the object as a commercial warehouse intended for long-distance trade [Veksler, Likhter, and Osipov, 2000; Likhter and Veksler, 2006]. Among the oriental goods brought by Bukhara trade caravans to Tobolsk, beads are celebrated only once. In 1668-1669, 40 skeins of Chinese blue cologne were registered for 4 rubles. [Vilkov, 1967, p. 178, 213-214]. "Chinese" does not mean that the beads are made in China. At best, this can be seen as an indication of the place of purchase. Chinese glassmaking at that time was characterized by the use of wood ash as an alkaline raw material and a high content of lead in glass [An Account ..., 1991]. There is no such glass among the studied samples.

Demand for beads in Siberia during the XVII-XVIII centuries. it was declining. Thus, in 1639-1669, its share decreased from 2.2% to 0.1% of the total volume of transit "Russian" goods entering the region through Tobolsk (Vilkov, 1967: 178, 213-214). Since the local production of glass ornaments in Siberia has not developed, this reflects a change in the equivalent in the fur trade with the indigenous population: cheap jewelry for basic necessities.

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** Crowns - balls carved from coral or bone, used as buttons or beads.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 09.03.09.

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