Using the results of experimental traceological and technological analysis, we reconstruct production technologies that are important for determining the characteristics of the culture represented by daggers from the collection of the Fofonovsky burial ground (Western Transbaikalia). Insert tools are functionally defined as dagger tips for stabbing captured large animals. These very carefully crafted arrowheads, which were made using the advanced technological achievements of the era, were probably intended for performing ritual actions.

Keywords: Neolithic, microplates, field tools, reconstruction technology, daggers, hunting features.

Introduction

The number of microplates produced by humans at the turn of the Pleistocene-Holocene is enormous. Microplate production in North and Central Asia was truly massive. This phenomenon raises quite a natural question for researchers about the purpose of these products. According to morphological characteristics, these are inserts. But it is not clear what they were invested in. It is assumed that the insert guns are universal. Experiments have shown that universal meat knives are effective in operation if the width of their stone inserts is at least 5-7 mm. The same plates can be used in the manufacture of spear tips for hunters. Knives with a plate width of approx. 15 mm are convenient for working with wood or bone. However, most of the microplates produced during the Late Paleolithic-Neolithic period are much smaller in size. The width of many product series does not exceed 2 mm.

Statistical analysis of the collections of Late Paleolithic monuments of the Selemdzha complex (Derevyanko, Volkov, and Li, 1998) and the multi-layered Neolithic monument Gromatukha (Okladnikov and Derevyanko, 1977) showed that the proportion of microplates in settlements and workshops is disproportionately small compared to the same indicator of the nuclei from which they were removed. The specific weight of recycled items identified on the basis of trace analysis of narrow microplates in the same collections is even lower. It is obvious that microplates were used by humans, as a rule, outside the places of their manufacture.

The work was carried out within the framework of the FPC project "Scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel of innovative Russia" for 2009-2013 (state contract 02.770.11.0353), the program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences (project 25.1.3: "Historical and cultural heritage and spiritual values of Russia "(Neolithic and Early Metal age) and the RGNF project (N 09 - 01 - 00368 a).

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Fig. 1. Product 1 from page 11.

Fig. 2. Product 2 from border 3 (2008).

It is impossible to detect clusters of used microplates of the type we are interested in at hunting sites. Good luck can only be expected when studying the inventory of burials.

The Fofonovsky burial ground, one of the largest and oldest burial complexes in the Baikal region, includes three groups of burials: Early Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Medieval (Okladnikov, 1950, 1955; Gerasimov and Chernykh, 1975). The burial ground is located 0.5 km above the village of Fofonovo in the Kabansky district of the Republic of Buryatia, on the right bank of the Selenga River, on the south-western, south-eastern and eastern slopes of Fofonovskaya Mountain.

The monument was opened in 1926 by A. P. Okladnikov [1928, p. 64-68]. Work on the burial ground was carried out by M. M. Gerasimov in 1931, 1934-1936, 1959 [Gerasimov and Chernykh, 1975, p. 23], A. P. Okladnikov-in 1948 and 1950 [1955, p. 14], V. P. Konev - in 1987-1991 and 1996 [1996; Zhambaltarova, Konev, 2001; Lbova, Zhambaltarova, Konev, 2008, pp. 54-60], E. D. Zhambaltarova - in 2007-2008 [2008].

The relevance of the proposed research is determined by the accumulation of extensive archaeological material (more than a hundred burials) of the Fofonovsky burial ground, the need to study the finds from the standpoint of an integrated approach at a qualitatively new level. In the past, large-scale excavations were carried out at this burial site, but the materials themselves have not yet been sufficiently studied. We have conducted a tracological analysis of previously unexplored archaeological materials from the Fofonovsky burial ground. The subject of the proposed work is three composite insert tools from Early Neolithic burials 11 (1991), 3, 4 (2007-2008), stored in the museum of the Buryat Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Description of finds

Article 1 (Fig. 1). The tool (inv. N 347kv) was found in collective site 11; the radiocarbon date of 6660 ± 100 BP (GIN-7113) was obtained from the bone (Mamonova and Sulerzhitsky, 2008, p.135). The composite insert tool is a long bone base that is evenly thinned towards one end and forms a point. At the other end of the product - the nozzle - traces of two chips are visible. Item length 24.8 cm, width 0.1 - 2.5 cm, thickness 0.1 - 0.9 cm. On the sides of the gun there are grooves for placing plates forming the blade (the depth of the groove is 0.1-0.2 cm). In the grooves of the tool, 14 microplates with traces of uneven toothed retouching, made of a grayish-beige siliceous material, were preserved (dimensions: (0,7 - 3,0)×(0,3 - 0,4)×0,1 see).

Article 2 (Fig. 2). A composite insert tool (artifact N Ff08 item 3/16) was found in border 3 (2008); its base is made of metapodial bone of a large deer, red or elk*.

* Determination of faunal materials was performed by Candidate of Geological Sciences A. M. Klementiev (Institute of the Earth's Crust SB RAS).

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The base of the insert gun is a long blade that tapers symmetrically to the tip, the nozzle of which is flattened, there is a hole in it. Product length 30 cm, width 0.2 - 2.5, thickness 0.2 - 0.6 cm. On the sides of the gun has grooves (depth up to 0.2 cm). In the grooves of the dagger were 11 retouched microplates (dimensions (1,0 - 2,5)×(0,3 - 0,4)×0,1 cm), made of chalcedony and light brown siliceous material. There are traces of uneven retouching - jagged, stepped, sub-parallel and multi-faceted edge. Secondary processing was mainly performed on one edge of the microplates on the front and ventral sides.

Article 3 (Fig. 3). Double-edged left dagger (artifact N Ff08 item 4/3) from the diaphysis of the tubular bone of a large ungulate (25,6×(0,5 - 2,5)×(0,4 - 0,7) cm); was part of the accompanying inventory of the collective pogr. 4 (2008). The point of the base of the tool is intentionally given asymmetrical shape, flattened nozzle. Three micro-plates of black (5.5 cm long) and gray (6.5 cm long; 2.3×0.4×0.1 cm long) siliceous material and six micro-plate fragments are fixed in the tool slots (1,6×0,4×0,1; 0,9×0,4×0,1; 1,0×0,3×0,1; 0,9×0,3×0,1; 0,9×0,3×0,1; 0,7×0,3×0,1 see). The inserts are covered with uneven retouching - covering, supplemented edge, and raznofasetochnoy edge.

All the tools described are flat in cross-section; in products 2 and 3, in contrast to product 1, the narrow side edges of the blades are directly cut off. The planes of the product 1 are perfectly polished and form clear edges.

Research methods

Functional and technological studies of the artefacts of the collection were based on the method of experimental traceological analysis developed by S. A. Semenov and G. F. Korobkova [Semenov, 1957; Korobkowa, 1999; et al.]. We also used the experience of synthesized traceological methods adapted to work with materials from archaeological collections of Neolithic sites in North Asia [Volkov, 1999].

The materials were examined using an MBS-10 binocular with one-way side illumination of the observed object and a discrete magnification mode of 8-56. Materials from the Siberian Reference Collection of Traceological Standards were used for a comparative analysis of traces of processing and wear on ancient tools.

Microscopic studies of the surface of products were carried out taking into account the experience of studying similar materials (Derevyanko, Shunkov, Volkov, 2008; Volkov, Lbova, 2009). The experimental and technological method allowed us to determine the main stages of dagger manufacturing and the specifics of their disposal.

Product 1. During the technological analysis, the sequence of human work with the product was revealed. Initially, to straighten the workpiece, the bone was probably moistened and subjected to heat treatment. On the surface of the product, distinct traces of shaping grinding (Fig. 4) and subsequent polishing (Fig. 5) of the surface are recorded. As a result of such actions, the basis of the studied insert tool was prepared.

With the help of grinding, the edges of the base were prepared, a place for cutting grooves for installing inserts (Fig. 6). The formation of the groove of the product was carried out with special care. Before cutting the groove, a bone base was drilled along its intended edges (Fig. 7). The recess had a conical profile (Fig.8), which ensured the accuracy and strength of fixation of the inserted extreme inserts.

The groove was made by a carver. The carver, like a knife, dissects the processed material. The cutter removes a part of the material, often in the form of chips. When working as a carver along the edges of the formed channel-recess, the processed raw materials are compacted. After a similar pass

Fig. 3. Product 3 from border 4 (2008).

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Fig. 4. Traces of grinding on the wide plane of the product 1.

5. Traces of polishing on the wide plane of the product 1.

Fig. 6. Linear traces left after grinding the narrow edge of the product 1.

Fig. 7. Drilling marks on the edge of the product slot 1.

Fig. 8. A conical recess drilled on the edge of the groove of the product 1.

Fig. 9. Traces of the carver's work and a characteristic burr (marked with an arrow) on the side of the chute of the product 1.

Fig. 10. Adhesive residues inside the product slot 1.

the density of the cutter over the entire volume of the material remains almost the same. Guns have a certain specialization. The carver is more convenient to use for complex, one might say, jewelry works on wood, bone, horn, stone; the chisel is more convenient to do more rough work [Volkov, 1999, p. 20-21]. The cutter is used more often than the cutter in the manufacture of grooves for insert tools. The use of a carver (it is recorded by the characteristic profile of the channel bottom and burrs on its sides (Fig. 9)) when forming the groove of the product under study 1 is a relatively rare case, indicating that the master worked with special care.

After the groove was cut, it was filled with an adhesive, probably organic, substance, the remains of which were preserved in some areas (Fig. 10). Probably, there were relatively few" fixers " - the configuration and depth of the groove were almost perfectly adapted to the shape and size of the stone inserts.

Microplate inserts show signs of "jagged" (Fig. 11), mostly one-sided (Fig. 12) retouching. Retouching optimized the shape of the products for their attachment in the groove.

Traces of a very specific way of retouching the inserts were found. Microplates were retouched after they were fixed in the bone base ed-

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This is evidenced by micro-capture negatives formed on two end-mated inserts at once (Fig. 13).

Conclusions about the nature of artifact disposal are based on the results of trace analysis of micro-traces on the surface of stone inserts, studying the surface of the bone base on the edges and analyzing the shape of the product. Polishing is formed over a relatively wide area and traced at the greatest distance from the edge of the tool blade and along the entire working edge (Fig. 14). It slightly smooths out the relief on the working area, smoothly repeats the surface folds and penetrates almost all the recesses of the microrelief. The boundary between the polished areas and undisturbed areas of the stone surface is blurred, unclear,and indistinct. The transition from the matte background of the unworn zone to the areas of undeveloped polishing is almost imperceptible. The surface of the polish has a dull sheen, which is noticeable against the background of the matte surface of undisturbed areas of the natural structure of the stone. In general, the wear pattern is typical for tools that came into contact with relatively soft organic material-meat [Ibid., p. 32].

Distinct traces that allow determining the kinematic characteristics of the tool are not recorded in the wear zones of microplates. However, linear traces were found on the surface of fragments of glue used for fixing the plates in the groove (Fig. 15), and even on the surface of the bone base of the product (Fig. 16). The degree of wear of the working sections of stone inserts is relatively intense, which indicates a long-term use of the tool. Based on the totality of traceological data, the product under study can be confidently identified as a knife that came into contact with a relatively soft organic substance (probably meat).

It was found that when the tool came into contact with the "processed material", it performed very monotonous translational movements. For an ordinary meat cleaver, this is not typical. When cutting a carcass or preparing meat for cooking, the knife moves along very complex trajectories. As a result, linear traces are formed with respect to the chaotic orientation. On the tool under study, almost all linear tracks are parallel to its long axis, which indicates a monotonous translational movement that penetrates the "material". It is very likely that the tool under study was used primarily for slaughtering and slaughtering animals.

The gun, given its relative fragility, should have moved relatively slowly. Та-

11. Traces of retouching on the working edge of the product insert 1.

12. Retouching element on the working edge of the insert and linear distribution of adhesive traces on the product 1.

13. Retouching flake formed on two inserts of product 1 at once.

14. Polishing of wear marks on the inserts of product 1 due to contact with meat.

15. Linear character of polishing of wear marks on the adhesive layer of product 1 due to contact with meat.

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16. Linear polishing of wear marks on the bone base of the product 1.

This is only possible when finishing off a wounded or trapped animal. The presence of this tool in the toolkit may indirectly indicate that the carriers of the studied culture had domesticated animals.

It is necessary to note one more feature of the tool in question - for direct performance of production tasks, it did not require careful finishing. However, the dagger probably used the highest technological achievements of the era. The thoroughness of the tool processing is striking and unusual. It is possible that the product, the creation of which was spent more time than the manufacture of an ordinary dagger, could be a special tool, probably intended not for the usual slaughter of animals, but for actions related to a religious cult.

The features of the dagger are clearly traced in the course of a comparative analysis with functionally similar tools from the archaeological collection of the Fofonovsky burial ground. Products 2 and 3 are not finished as carefully as the previous dagger, the technological features of their production indicate the use of simpler techniques. The groove for the stone inserts was cut not by a carver, but by a chisel (Fig. 17). Its use simplifies the process, but does not provide a high quality of working out the groove. It is formed wider; the inserts are not fixed as firmly as in the narrow slot from the carver. The edge of the slot was not drilled in advance (Fig. 18), so it was possible for the tool inserts to "slip" during the working load. The stone inserts show traces of retouching, mostly double-sided (Fig. 19), not too regular (Fig. 20) and not very carefully executed.

In general, products 2 and 3 can be attributed to ordinary tools, tools for stabbing, finishing off animals obtained during hunting. On the well-preserved article 2 there are traces of accommodation of the base under the dagger handle by grinding (Fig. 21, 22). It is obvious that the artifact under study was only a part, the tip of the gun. Judging by

19. Traces of retouching on the product insert 2.

20. Retouching, forming the working edge, on one of the inserts of the product 2.

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23. Reconstruction of the dagger from the Fofonovo burial ground.

Due to the size of the burial pits and the specific location of the objects under study, the length of the dagger handles did not exceed half a meter (Fig.

Planigraphic analysis of border 4 indicates that the insert tool was placed in it without a handle: it was adjacent to the wall of the grave pit. Article 2 may have been used both as a spearhead and as a dagger. A. P. Okladnikov did not rule out that some of the insert tools were used not only as spearheads, but also as daggers [1950, p.216].

Conclusion

The conducted studies allow us to determine the considered items from the Fofonovsky burial ground as the tips of daggers used to stab wounded large animals. It is possible that the particularly carefully crafted arrowheads, which probably used advanced technologies of that time, were intended for performing ritual actions or belonged to people of high social status.

These findings are supported by the archaeological context. The tools under study were found in burials marked by special features of the funeral rite. Two of the three tools were found in collective burials. All the daggers were part of a rich accompanying inventory. It should be emphasized that the accompanying inventory in the Early Neolithic burials of the Fofonovsky burial ground is poor or completely absent. Thus, it can be assumed that insert tools could be used for their intended purpose (stabbing), as well as emphasize the special status of their owner. Additional research is needed to clarify the proposed conclusions. In the future, based on the materials of the Fofonovsky burial ground, it is planned to study the cultural and technological traditions of tool making from the perspective of an integrated approach in the context of archaeological cultures of the early Neolithic-Bronze Age of Western Transbaikalia.

List of literature

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Volkov P. V., Lbova L. V. Technology of making body jewelry at the early stage of the Upper Paleolithic (based on materials from Western Transbaikalia) // Vestn. Novosibirsk State University. Ser.: Archeology and Ethnography. - 2009. - Vol. 8, issue 5. - pp. 62-73.

Gerasimov, M. M. and Chernykh, E. N., Excavations of the Fofanov burial ground in 1959, Primeval Archeology of Siberia, Nauka Publ., 1975, pp. 23-48.

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Zhambaltarova E. D. Fofonovsky burial ground: research prospects // Tr. II (VIII) Everything is clear. archeol. congress in Suzdal. Moscow: Publishing House of IA RAS, 2008, pp. 212-215.

Zhambaltarova E. D., Konev V. P. Fofonovsky burial ground: materials of 1987-89 and 1996 // Historical and cultural heritage of North Asia: results and prospects of studying at the turn of the millennium. Barnaul: Alt. State University Publ., 2001, pp. 171-172.

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Lbova L. V., Zhambaltarova E. D., Konev V. P. Burial complexes of the Neolithic-Early Bronze Age of Transbaikalia (formation of archetypes of primitive culture). Novosibirsk, IAET SB RAS Publ., 2008, 248 p. (in Russian)

Mamonova, N. N. and Sulerzhitsky, L. D., Radiocarbon chronology of Holocene burials in the Baikal region and Transbaikalia based on osteological material from burial grounds, Chelovek, adaptatsiya, kul'tura, Moscow: Izd. IA RAN, 2008, pp. 127-139.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 25.02.10.

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