CHINA ENTERS THE FOREFRONT IN THE FIELD OF PEACEFUL NUCLEAR ENERGY

A. A. BRONNIKOV

Job Seeker

Far East Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Keywords: China, nuclear power industry, uranium deposits, world uranium market, technologies for peaceful use of the atom

Despite a slight slowdown in the growth rate (in 2013- 7,7%, 2012 - 7,8%, 2011 -9,2%), China's economy is still one of the fastest growing in the world. This inevitably leads to an increase in demand for electricity, and therefore there is a shortage of energy resources and generating capacities in the country.

Back in 2011, China announced ambitious plans for the development of nuclear power - a sevenfold increase in capacity by 2020. However, the accident at the Japanese Fukushima nuclear power plant on March 11, 2011 made adjustments to these plans and led to their temporary freezing. But already in the summer of 2013. Beijing announced the resumption of its peaceful nuclear programs, although it has somewhat "moderated its appetites." Now China plans to increase the total capacity of its nuclear power plants by 4 times by 2020 - from the current 13.8 to 60 GW, which will increase the share of electricity produced at nuclear power plants from 2 to 6% of the total volume of its production.

The development of nuclear power was initially considered in China as one of the ways to ensure energy security, primarily by diversifying energy sources and reducing dependence on imported hydrocarbons, mainly oil, of which the PRC became the largest importer in 2013.However, this task also faces difficulties.

Assessing the scale and prospects of nuclear fuel imports, we can predict the emergence of a new problem - China's growing dependence on external uranium supplies. The total amount of uranium imported by China in 2010 was 17,136 tons, in 2011-16,126 tons (95% of imports came from Kazakhstan, Namibia, Australia and Uzbekistan). This significantly exceeds the rate of its consumption [1].

The emphasis on the accelerated development of nuclear power is also explained by the increased attention to environmental problems in the country. The XVIII Congress of the Communist Party of China, held on November 8-15, 2012, named them among the most important, proclaiming the task of building an "ecological civilization". Nuclear power as the most environmentally friendly source of electricity is becoming one of the main vectors of the industry's development.

AT THE EPICENTER OF THE PROBLEM

Over the past two decades, China has become an important player in the field of peaceful nuclear energy. Today, China has 17 nuclear reactors in operation with a total capacity of 13.8 GW, generating about 2% of the country's total electricity generation, and another 30 are under construction, making the country a world leader in the number of nuclear reactors under construction.

Surpassing all countries combined in terms of the number of reactors under construction, as well as extensive future plans for the construction of nuclear power plants, the PRC is becoming the largest consumer of nuclear fuel, as well as an important site for testing new types of reactors and a promising partner in the field of nuclear energy for many countries. At the same time, the implementation of the Chinese nuclear power development program will depend crucially on the fuel supply of existing and under construction nuclear power plants. Limited reserves of nuclear fuel are one of the constraints on the development of nuclear energy around the world.

Global uranium consumption in 2012 was 67,800 tons, including production of 58,000 tons, and about 10,000 tons were obtained from other sources (including as a result of processing weapons-grade uranium). The world's total reserves of raw uranium are estimated at 5.4 million tons; if the current consumption rate is maintained, these reserves will last for 78 years, which is extremely short in terms of sustainable development and energy security concepts. Many countries conduct geological exploration, and the volume of world reserves is adjusted annually; however, it is considered unlikely that new deposits will be discovered that can radically change the picture of the world uranium market [2].

The People's Republic of China is at the epicenter of the problem. Experts estimate that China's total uranium consumption in 2013 was 6,700 tons, or about 10% of the global total. At the same time, in

In 2012, 1,500 tons of this energy raw material were produced at our own fields. In accordance with the officially announced plans for generating electricity at nuclear power plants, from 2020 China will need about 15,000 tons of uranium annually, while the country's reserves of uranium ores are estimated at 170,000 tons [3].

China conducts large-scale geological exploration and the search for new uranium deposits. In November 2012, the country's largest uranium ore deposit was discovered in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The exact size of reserves in the Dayin region is not reported, but it is known that they exceed the reserves of the Yili deposit in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, which was discovered 4 years ago and is estimated at 10,000 tons [4].

Under these conditions, the PRC is actively pursuing "uranium diplomacy", expanding the import of nuclear fuel. The authority to import uranium is granted to two major companies-China General Nuclear Corp. (CGNC) и China National Nuclear Corp. (CNNC). Both of them conclude deals for the purchase and sale of uranium from other states, by the way, competing with each other.

Special attention is paid to cooperation with Central Asian states, due to their geographical proximity. China's interests in this region are mainly related to Kazakhstan, and in the future, probably, with Uzbekistan, since it is in these countries that the most profitable and attractive uranium ore reserves for the PRC are concentrated.

KAZAKHSTAN AND UZBEKISTAN -CHINA'S "NUCLEAR STOREROOMS"

Kazakhstan is a traditional partner of China in the field of nuclear energy. In 2007 Kazatomprom and CGNC signed two agreements on China's participation in the joint development of Kazakhstan's uranium deposits and on Kazakhstan's investment in the Chinese nuclear industry. In November 2010, CGNC signed a 10-year contract for the supply of 24,200 tons of uranium with Kazatomprom, which became its main supplier of nuclear fuel.

A subsidiary of China General Nuclear Corp. - Sino-Kazakhstan Uranium Resources Investment Co invests in two Kazakh uranium deposits - Irkol (production volume - 750 tons per year) and Semizbay (production volume - 500 tons per year) [5].

Kazakhstan's share in global uranium production (in the first half of 2013) was 35%, with Kazatomprom accounting for more than half of the raw materials extracted from the subsurface. In turn, this company exports 40% of the extracted uranium to China. It has a strong reputation for stability and reliability, which is largely due to the impressive scale of production. So, despite the fact that after the Fukushima accident in March 2011, world uranium prices fell by 2 times, the company continues to be profitable. And the fact that the volumes of uranium produced are contracted for 5-10 years in advance allows Kazatomprom to stay "afloat", and not only not to reduce the rate of production, but also to increase them.

In August 2009, China's CGNC and the Uzbek company Goskomgeo established a joint venture - Sino-Uz Uranium Resources Co Ltd., which is engaged in the exploration of uranium deposits in the Boztau area in the central part of the Kyzylkum desert in the Navoi region of Uzbekistan. As a result of geological exploration, several uranium deposits were identified, but the volume of reserves was not disclosed, although it is known that the forecast reserves were estimated at 5,500 tons. Technologies for the separate production of uranium and vanadium are being developed here; production of raw materials is planned to start in 2014. [6]

CGNC AND CNNC ON THE GLOBAL URANIUM MARKET

Perhaps richer uranium deposits are found in Africa, which China has shown increased interest in in recent years. CGNC and a Chinese private equity fund each own a 24.5% stake in UraMin, a Canadian company owned by France's Areva SA that develops fields in Namibia, South Africa and the Central African Republic. According to experts, these deposits will be able to supply 40,000 tons of uranium to China by 2022.

In November 2010, CGNC entered into an agreement with the Canadian company Sateso for the supply of 13,150 tons of uranium from deposits in North America and Kazakhstan by 2025 [7]. Earlier in 2010, CGNC signed a ten-year contract with France's Areva SA for the supply of 20,000 tons of uranium from the company's fields around the world.

In February 2013, China General Nuclear Corp. It has completed the acquisition of Extract Resources, an Australian company that develops the largest uranium deposits in Africa. CGNC, together with the China-Africa Development Fund, paid $2.7 billion to Extract Resources and associated companies as a result of this transaction. The largest deposit that China has gained access to as a result is located in Namibia, in the Khusab region, its reserves are estimated at 137700 tons of uranium [8].

China National Nuclear Corp. It occupies a relatively modest position in this market, but it is expected that it will be able to get a share in the new project of the French Areva SA in Nigeria. Back in 2007, CNNC signed a framework cooperation agreement with Kazatomprom and is already investing in the Jalpak uranium deposit, whose reserves are estimated at 10 - 15 thousand tons. t of uranium. Production is scheduled to start in 2014, with planned volumes of 500 tons per year. In 2010, CNNC signed a ten-year contract with Canada's Sateso for the supply of 10,435 tons of uranium from deposits in North America and Kazakhstan.

In March 2009, China National Nuclear Corp. Western Prospector Group Ltd, which has control of the Gurvanbulag field in Mongolia, has agreed to take over (the transaction amount is $25 million). The absorption process was completed in August 2009, but geological surveys revealed that very little can be extracted here - no more than 700 tons of uranium per year, and for only 9 years. As a result, the survey is currently suspended, and the further fate of the deposit is unknown.

From the point of view of Chinese experts in the field of energy security, existing contracts are not enough. According to experts, in order to meet the growing demand, CGNC and CNNC will have to increase the import of raw uranium from the current 17,000 tons in 2010 to 40,000 tons in 2020.-

The role of Chinese companies in the global uranium market will only increase.

RUSSIAN URANIUM FOR CHINESE NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The principles of cooperation between Russia and China in the nuclear industry are reflected in the Protocol on Approval of the Comprehensive Program of Medium-term Cooperation in the Field of Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, signed in November 2007. The program is designed for 10 years and includes such areas of cooperation as design, construction and operation of nuclear power plants, exploration of deposits and production of uranium, as well as provision of nuclear nuclear fuel management in China, spent nuclear fuel utilization, development of innovative nuclear technologies, including cooperation in the design and operation of fast neutron reactors. The People's Republic of China is guided by the package, integrated principle when concluding contracts in this area, which provides for the supply of Russian-made reactors, as well as the latest equipment for nuclear power plants, fuel for loading reactors under construction, as well as technologies for fuel production and processing [9].

The Russian Federation has significant reserves of raw uranium, estimated at approximately 158,000 tons, or 4% of the world's reserves. Production volumes in the Russian Federation were: in 2010 - 3500 tons, in 2011 - about 2900 tons, in 2012-2,800 tons. At the same time, the total annual demand for nuclear fuel in Russia itself is estimated at 16,000 tons per year, and is estimated to increase to 36,000 tons by 2020 [10].

Today, the Russian Federation consumes more uranium than it produces on its territory and, objectively, is a competitor of the PRC in the purchase of raw uranium abroad. However, our country has several other sources of uranium production, including from nuclear explosive devices to be destroyed. In addition, Russia receives quite a lot of uranium from Kazakhstan and Ukraine, as well as from Mongolia.

The decline in production at domestic fields is associated with their production and depletion, and the development of new ones requires too much investment. The management of Russian companies, referring to the unfavorable conjuncture of world prices for uranium, does not seek to invest in expanding its production in the country, while at the same time engaging in the search for highly profitable deposits abroad. For example, Gazprombank acquired licenses for the development of two uranium deposits in Niger back in 2011.

Russia is making a significant contribution to the development of China's nuclear power industry, primarily in the field of uranium enrichment. All the uranium enrichment facilities located in China were purchased from Russia. These include Hanzhong, Lanzhou, Heping (currently production is stopped), and another plant-in the city of Yibin-is under construction. The plants operate Russian-made centrifuges supplied by Techsnabexport under contracts concluded in 1992-2001.

Back in 2010, our country signed an agreement with China on the construction of the second stage of the Tianwan nuclear Power Plant (TAPP), as well as on the construction of a uranium enrichment facility in Yibin in China. The agreement is of a package nature and includes the commitment of the People's Republic of China to purchase guaranteed volumes of uranium enrichment services from Russia. Although the parties do not officially recognize a direct link between the implementation of agreements on uranium enrichment and the construction of new power reactors, however, long-term cooperation in this area is beneficial for each of the parties and has good prospects. Russia thus managed to implement the package principle of the agreement, which includes an agreement on the construction of nuclear power plants, on fuel supplies and on further participation in the operation of power units. At the same time, China has consistently shown an increased interest in Russian nuclear technologies.

Cooperation between our two countries also concerns the development of new technologies. For example, in 2008, Rosatom State Corporation and the China State Nuclear Industry Corporation signed a Memorandum on the construction of a commercial fast-neutron demonstration reactor with a capacity of 800 MW. In June 2010, this reactor, located near Beijing and built using Russian technology and in close cooperation with specialists from the two countries, was successfully launched.

The contract provides not only for the installation of the reactor, but also for cooperation between Chinese and Russian specialists at the stage of its start-up and operation, as well as for the supply of fuel that is manufactured at the enterprises of the Russian TVEL Corporation. In October 2013, TVEL signed a $60 million contract with the Chinese side. for the supply of the next batches of fuel in 2014. In addition, Russia and China agreed to build a nuclear power plant consisting of two fast neutron power units with a capacity of 800 MW each, equipped with Russian-made reactors.

In the autumn of 2013, TVEL signed a long-term contract for the supply of fuel for the second stage of the TAPP under construction in China (Blocks III and IV of this plant are currently under construction). As at Blocks I and II, Russian-made reactors will be installed here (the VVER-1000 model with a capacity of 1060 MW each, the launch dates are 2017 and 2018). In accordance with the contract signed in August 2011, the Russian company Atomstroyexport remains the general contractor and will install nuclear reactors. However, the French Areva SA and the German Siemens concern are also involved in the construction of this nuclear power plant, which will supply non-nuclear installations and units.

The contract signed on October 19, 2013 between TVEL and the Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation in Beijing completed negotiations that began in February 2012. According to TVEL, the contract contains a" schedule " of fuel supplies for Units III and IV of the Tianwan NPP until 2025; the contract amount is $1 billion. TVEL will also supply fuel production equipment for all four units of the TAPP to the Yibin plant. The previous contract, signed in 2010, provides for the supply of fuel for the reloading of units I and II of the TNPP, as well as the transfer of Russian fuel production technology to a Chinese plant [11]. The fourth stage of a uranium enrichment plant is currently being constructed in Yibin, and the work is being managed by the Russian Techsnabexport. After the plant is put into operation, expected in 2014, China's uranium enrichment capacity will increase significantly.

On June 21, 2013, Chinese media published a statement by Lei Zengguang, Chief Engineer of China Nuclear Energy Industry Corporation, stating that the corporation has fully mastered its own uranium enrichment technology and has started its industrial use. Previously, only Russia and several other countries owned this technology. Zhu Ji, General Director of the Lanzhou Uranium Enrichment Company, noted that at this stage the company has started manufacturing equipment for centrifuges and will be able to fully meet the need for nuclear fuel by 2020 [12].

CHINA'S PEACEFUL ATOM ON THE WORLD STAGE

China's success and achievements in the global nuclear power market are quite significant. China not only builds nuclear power plants on its territory, but also joins the international technological race. In April 2012, it was announced that China would take part in a tender for the construction of a new nuclear power plant on the Black Sea coast of Turkey, and, according to experts, Beijing had a good chance of winning. However, the Turkish government preferred the Japanese-French project. Two nuclear power plants are currently under construction in Turkey, and Russian companies are engaged in the construction of the second one [13]. As for China, it plans to participate in the tender for the construction of a nuclear power plant in South Africa.

China has great prospects for cooperation in this area with its traditional ally, Pakistan. Islamabad has repeatedly stated its intentions to purchase nuclear power units from China for installation at its nuclear power plants.

Currently, there are three nuclear power plants in Pakistan: one built by Canadians and two built by Chinese, with a total capacity of 725 MW. These are Karachi nuclear power plant with a Canadian reactor (125 MW), Chashma-1 and Chashma-2 nuclear power plants with Chinese reactors (300 MW each). Chinese-made nuclear reactors of the same capacity will be installed at Units III and IV of the Chashma NPP; their construction began in 2011.

In 2013, China and Pakistan confirmed their plans to install two Chinese nuclear reactors at the Karachi nuclear power plant (Karachi-III and Karachi-IV). The contract was signed in August 2013, the transaction amount is estimated at $9.6 billion, and construction began at the end of 2013. [14]

If the deal is successfully completed, this will be China's first experience selling modern ACPI000 series reactors abroad. However, the implementation of this project causes serious protests from India: due to the lack of confidence of Delhi in the absolute reliability of equipment of this type - after all, in the event of any accident, a significant part of India will also be in the "affected zone".

In the fall of 2013, the United Kingdom signed a contract with a consortium of companies to build a new nuclear power plant at Hinkley Point in the Kingdom at a cost of $25.9 billion. This contract is unique in its content. According to it, the UK allows Chinese companies to participate in the construction process - the two largest Chinese companies in the field of nuclear energy CGNC and CNNC will receive about 30-40% of contracts, and the French EDF (Electricite de France SA) - about 45-50% [15].

During a visit to China in October 2013, U.S. Secretary of Energy Ernest Moniz said that under a bilateral cooperation agreement, China may supply parts of equipment for nuclear power plants under construction in the United States. While there is no official confirmation of what kind of equipment we are talking about. Among the possible options are pressure tanks, steam generators and pipes for cooling reactor systems - all these units designed for both nuclear and conventional thermal power plants, the PRC has long been supplying to many countries [16].

One of the results of the visit of the American official was the start of construction of a jointly funded China-US Nuclear Safety Center. It will be located in the Changyang Science and Technology Park and will be the largest in the entire Asia-Pacific region. The Center is expected to serve as a platform for professional training of specialists and technological exchange in the field of nuclear safety. The Memorandum of Understanding and establishment of the Center was signed in April 2010 during the state visit of Chinese President Hu Jintao to Washington. Construction is expected to be completed in 2015.

In 2011, China unveiled plans for a " big nuclear leap forward." Over the past two years, it has demonstrated exceptionally high rates of development of the nuclear industry. Analyzing the steps taken by the country, we can conclude that China will be able to solve the problem of fuel supply for its growing nuclear industry, and technological achievements in this area already allow it to enter world markets not only as a consumer, but also as a supplier of services and technologies.

1. Atomic News Agency - http://www.atomin fo.ru/

2. World Nuclear Association - http://www.world-nuclear. org/

3. Ibidem.

4. Xinhua News Agency http://www.xinhuanet.com/

5. Kazinform News Agency http://www.inform.kz/

6. Regnum News Agency http://www.regnum.ru/

7. World Nuclear Association...

8. Ibid.

9. Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation - http://www.rosatom.ru/

10. World Nuclear Association...

11. Emelianenko A. They buy better from their neighbors / / Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 22.10.2013 - http://www.rg.ru/2013/10/21/ toplivo-site.html

12. The Chinese nuclear industry has completely mastered its own technology of uranium enrichment / / People's Daily online, 22.06.2013 - http://russian.people.com.cn

13. Atomic News Agency - www.atominfo.ru

14. Ibid.

15. Press release of Electricite de France - http://press.edf. com/fichiers/fckeditor/Commun/Presse/Communiques/EDF/ 2013/cp 20131021-l_va.pdf

16. Xinhua News Agency http://www.xinhuanet.com

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