UDC 903. 27

Yu. S. Khudyakov 1, N. Erdene-Ochir 2

1 Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS 17 Akademika Lavrentieva Ave., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia

E-mail: khudjakov@mail.ru

2 Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Mongolian People's Republic, Mongolia

Аrхеологийн хyрээлэ Монгол улсын шинжлэх

ухааны академийн Жуковын гудамж, 77, Улаанбаатар, 51

E-mail: nas-ochir@mail.ru

In ancient times, bronze helmets were very highly valued, so their discovery in archaeological sites of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages in the steppe belt of Eurasia is very rare. In Mongolia in the 1990s, three bronze helmets were found that were similar in design. Two of them come from the monuments of the tile graves culture. In recent years, another bronze helmet was discovered near Mount Khitruun (Central Mongolia), which differs in its design features from those previously found on the territory of Transbaikalia and Mongolia. It has a spherical dome with a loop on the parietal part, supraorbital cutouts and a nanosheet on the front, holes for attaching a barmitsa or balaclava along the lower edge. This helmet has a significant similarity with those of the ancient nomads of Southern Manchuria, as well as the Saks and Scythians. The analysis of the find made it possible to clarify the chronology, cultural affiliation and typological composition of metal warheads in different ethnic groups of ancient nomads who lived in Central Asia during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. The development of bronze helmets among the ancient nomads of the Central Asian region is associated with an increase in the effectiveness of melee shock weapons: battle axes, chisels and pliers. Only warriors who had such protective equipment as bronze helmets could successfully resist the enemy armed with this formidable weapon.

Keywords: Mongolia, Eastern Transbaikalia, Central Asia, ancient nomads, horexur and deer stone culture, tile grave culture, protective weapons, bronze helmets.

Introduction

As part of the protective weapons of ancient warriors, an important role was played by personal metal protection equipment, which weakened the impact of the striking blows of offensive weapons used by the enemy. In ancient times, different types of warheads were made from various organic materials. The creation of metal means of protection was due to the development of shock weapons of increased destructive power, designed for close combat. In such conditions, only a special high-strength protective combat head covering could prevent possible damage to the warrior's head. The development of bronze casting technology made it possible to produce metal helmets. Their invention and use significantly influenced the evolution of the entire complex of weapons and military art of the ancient peoples of Eurasia [Khudyakov, Tabaddiev, Soltobaev, 2001, p. 101].

Despite all the subsequent changes in personal metal protection equipment, combat headboards have been preserved in the arsenal of many armies up to the present time, which indicates their importance in the history of military affairs.

In ancient times, difficult to manufacture and very metal-intensive items of protective weapons

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1. Bronze helmets from Mongolia and Eastern Transbaikalia.

1-3-helmet made of Elst Hoshuu; 4, 5-helmet made of Tunguska Tin.

2. Bronze helmets from Mongolia and Altai.

1-4-helmet from Mount Khitruun; 5, 6-helmet from the Upper Irtysh region.

they were highly valued because they could be used not only for their intended purpose, but also for remelting. Therefore, bronze helmets in archaeological sites of almost all cultures of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages are quite rare. A significant part of them belongs to the number of random finds. Several areas of distribution of bronze helmets of different ancient cultures of nomadic peoples have been identified within the Eurasian Steppe Belt.

In the steppes of Eastern Europe, in the Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus, almost two dozen bronze helmets of spherical shape were found, attributed by researchers to the"Kuban type". Some of them were discovered during excavations of archaeological sites of the Early Scythian period (Chernenko, 1968, p. 76; Galanina, 1985, p. 182; Gorelik, 1993, p. 167). Three bronze helmets of spherical and spheroconic shapes were found in Central Asia (Kuzmina, 1958, p. 123; Litvinsky, 1972, p. 127-128; Khudyakov, Tabaldiev, and Soltobaev, 2001, p. 103-104). A series of different types of bronze helmets is known in the northern regions of China. They originate from the Late Bronze Age monuments, which researchers associate with the cultures of the "northern barbarians" - nomadic tribes that inhabited the steppe regions located to the north of the ancient Chinese states (Varenov, 1994, p.86-91; Komissarov, 1988, p. 88-91).

In the Central Asian region, some random bronze helmets were known until recently. One of them comes from the Tunguska Olov locality in Eastern Transbaikalia (Figs. 1, 4, 5). This helmet remained unknown to archaeologists for a long time, although it was found at the end of the XIX century and was kept in the Chita Museum of Local Lore. It was first introduced into scientific use only in the mid-1990s, almost 100 years after its discovery (Kirillov, 1996). Another bronze helmet was accidentally found in the" Altai Mountains", in the Upper Irtysh region (Fig. It is known from rather sketchy sketches given in several publications [Gryaznoe, 1947, Fig. 5; Surazakov, 1979, p. 189; Gorelik, 1993, Table XLII, 41].

Until the early 1990s, metal warheads were not found in the monuments of archaeological cultures of the ancient nomads of Mongolia. In recent years, as a result of large-scale field research and collecting random finds, four bronze helmets have been discovered on the territory of this country. Two of them were found in 1992 and 1994 during the Selenga Mongol-American expedition in the valley of the Egiin-Gol river in Khutag-Undur-somon of the Bulgan Aimag in Northern Mongolia during excavations of tile graves on monuments

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3. Bronze helmets from Emgant Hoshuu (1, 2) and Holtost Nougat (3, 4). Mongolia.

Emgent Hoshuu and Holtost Nougat (Figs. 3-5), which gives them a special value. Subsequent publications, first in Mongolian and then in Russian, described and analyzed the typological features of these helmets, indicated the chemical composition of the metal, and determined the chronology and cultural affiliation of these finds (Erdenebaatar, 1995, tal. 42; Эрдэнэбаатар, Худяков, 2000, с. 144, 145; Эрдэнэбаатар, 2002, тал. 68, 245, 246; Турбат, Амартувшин, Эрдэнэбат, 2003, тал. 164, 167]. Later, the area of such bronze helmets in Central Asia was identified [Khudyakov, 2001; Khudyakov, 2004], and their functional characteristics were determined using mathematical modeling methods [Korobeynikov, Khudyakov, Shutov, 2002].

In the article Ch. Eruul-Erdene and G. Ragzen, published in 1999, described and analyzed another such find from Mongolia. This helmet was accidentally found by local residents on the surface, at the foot of the Ber Uul Mountain in the Elst Hoshuu area within the Erdenehairhan Somon of the Zavkhan aimag in the western part of the country. Since it remained unknown to Russian archaeologists, we will give its description. The height of the helmet from the lower edge of the earphones to the parietal part, including the loop, is 19.5 cm, length is 22.6 cm, width is 19.7 cm. The loop has a height of 1.8 cm, a width of 3.6 cm, a thickness of 0.5-0.8 cm. The front cutout of this headband is higher than the occipital one. On the lower edge of the helmet is a flattened roller width of 0.4 cm. On the lower part of each earpiece along the roller, there are three rounded holes with a diameter of 0.05 - 0.1 cm (see Figs. 1, 1-3) [Yeruul-Erdene and Regzen, 1999, tal. 26 - 28]. In its shape, spherical dome and earpieces, as well as the chemical composition of the metal from which it is cast, this helmet almost does not differ from the two found in tile graves. According to Ch. Yeruul-Erdene, the city of Ragzen, all these three battle headlands should belong to the same chronological period [Ibid.].

4. Holtost Nougat helmet.

Fig. 5. Helmet from Emgant Hoshuu.

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In recent years, another bronze helmet has been found in Mongolia. Currently, it is kept in the Museum of the Mongolian Army (Ulaanbaatar). Thanks to the management and staff of this museum*, one of the authors of this article was able to inspect, sketch and photograph this helmet in order to introduce it into scientific circulation and make it accessible to many researchers.

Helmet Description

Bronze helmet kept in the Museum of the Mongolian Army (see Fig. 2, 1-4; 6), is of undoubted interest for studying the military affairs of the ancient nomads. It can be attributed to the type of spherical combat heads with a nanosheet and a nasatylnik.

This helmet was found by local residents near Mount Khitruun in Bat-Ulziy-somon of the Uburkhangai aimag in Mongolia. The circumstances of its discovery and transfer to the museum remained unclear. The helmet has a spherical, oval cross-section, elongated from the front to the back of the head, a dome with a loop at the top. Its height (including the loop) is 14 cm, its length is 24.5 cm, and its width is 14 cm. The loop is arc-shaped, 4.4 cm wide, 1.1 cm high, 0.5 cm thick. In front, the helmet has vertical semi-oval supraorbital cutouts, forming a hip protrusion at the junction - a nanosheet. They are bordered by a low semicircular roller. A roller also passes from the nanosheet to the loop, but it is sub-triangular in cross-section. The lower edge of the helmet is horizontal on the right and left sides. Along it at a distance of approx. round holes with a diameter of 0.5 - 0.6 mm are placed 1 cm apart: on the left side - 11, on the right - 12. They are not always drilled accurately, in one case the edge of the helmet is broken. At the back, the lower edge is slightly lower than on the sides, forming a narrow nasatylnik. It has one hole on the right side. The helmet dome is badly damaged: it is split along a long axis from the back of the head to the front. The fault edges do not connect along their entire length. Probably, some fragments of the dome are lost. The helmet was cast in a multi-part casting mold using thin-walled bronze casting technology.

Despite the similarity in the manufacturing technology and the presence of structural elements that bring the Khitruun helmet closer to the protective battle heads found earlier in Mongolia and Transbaikalia (spherical dome shape, semi-oval loop on it), typologically it is quite significantly different from the spherical bronze helmets with earflaps found in monuments characteristic of ancient nomads-carriers of the tile culture. graves. These differences relate primarily to the proportions of the dome. If spherical bronze helmets with earplugs have a height approximately equal to the length, and the width is less by 6 cm, then the Khitruunsky height and width are the same, and the length is 10 cm longer. One gets the impression that these two different types of battle heads were designed to protect warriors who belonged to different anthropological types, with different ratios of skull length and width. A significant design difference of the Khitruun helmet can be considered the presence of supraorbital cutouts, a nanosheet, a roller along the edge and crest of the front part of the dome and the back of the head. The difference in the number and location of holes is noteworthy. Spherical helmets from tile graves in Northern Mongolia have one hole on each ear near the roller running along the lower edge, while those from Western Mongolia have three holes on each ear. The helmet from Eastern Transbaikalia has two loops on the rollers. Most likely, these structural elements served to attach a soft lining. The Khitruun helmet has 11 to 12 holes on each side, which indicates a different purpose. Perhaps, with the help of these holes, suspended protective parts were attached, which can correspond to a composite barmitsa. In favor of this assumption, the height of the dome of the Khitruun helmet, which is small in comparison with other bronze headstones found on the territory of Mongolia, is 8 - 10 cm less.

When comparing the battle head from Mount Khitruun with others found in the Central Asian region, the greatest similarity can be traced to the bronze helmet from the Upper Irtysh region. Although the latter, accidentally found "in the Altai Mountains", is known only from fairly schematic drawings in two projections (in front and on the left side), it is possible to judge its shape from them [Gryaznoye, 1947, Fig. 5; Surazakov, 1979, p. 189, Fig. 2, 9; Gorelik, 1993, Table XLII, 41]. These helmets have a certain similarity in the ratio of length and width. The length of the battle headland from the Upper Irtysh region significantly exceeds the width and height. It is 20.5 cm. Other dimensions are not specified in the publications. In front of this helmet there are oval supraorbital cutouts and a pointed nanosheet, from which a protruding roller passes to the parietal part. Along the lower edge of the headland there is a row of rounded holes (see Fig. 2,

* We would like to thank M. Byambaragchai, A. Ganganchimeg and R. Tugssaikhan, employees of the Mongolian Army Museum, for their permission to introduce this helmet into scientific circulation.

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6. Helmet from Mount Khitruun.

5, b). According to A. S. Surazakov, they were used "for fixing a piece of thick skin that protected the lower part of the face and neck" [1979, p. 189], which is doubtful. However, this helmet is not an exact copy of khitruunekogo. It lacks a loop at the top and rollers bordering the supraorbital cutouts. A series of holes along the entire lower edge of this helmet may indicate that the suspension plates were attached to it not from two, but from three sides. However, this headland was damaged, as well as the Khitruun one, in the rear part, where a significant fragment was broken. A certain similarity can be seen in the design of these helmets and the finds from Wujintang in Northern China (Komissarov, 1988, fig. 66, 3; Varenov, 1994, Fig. 2, 2), as well as bronze heads found in the western range of their distribution in the steppes of Eastern Europe. Similar helmets were found during excavations of Early Scythian complexes in Kelermes and Vorontsov Kurgan in the Kuban region, in the village of Stary Pechyur in the Lower Volga region (Gorelik, 1993, p. 168; Chernenko, 1968, p. 77-81).

Based on the available materials, three groups can be distinguished among the bronze warheads of the Central Asian region. The first one, which includes three spherical helmets with loops on the parietal part, earpieces and holes in them from the monuments of Emgant Hoshuu, Holtost Nougat and Elst Hoshuu, is common in the Northern, Western and Eastern regions of the country.

Central Mongolia (see Fig. 1, 1 - 3; 3). The second group is represented by a single spherical helmet with earphones and loops on them from the Tunguska Olov locality in Eastern Transbaikalia (see Figures 1, 4-5). The third one, which combines two spherical helmets with supraorbital cutouts, a nanosheet and holes along the lower edge, is confined to the Altai, Western and partly Central Mongolia (see Figure 2). The distribution areas of the first and third groups partially coincide.

Issues of chronology and cultural affiliation of bronze helmets in Central Asia

The problems of determining the time of appearance and chronology of the existence of bronze helmets in the cultures of ancient nomads of the Steppe belt of Eurasia have been repeatedly considered in archaeological and weapons studies. Among the bronze helmets of the "Kuban type" found in the monuments of the steppe zone of Eastern Europe, which some researchers propose to call helmets, there are heads with a spherical dome, a loop at the top, supraorbital cutouts, a nanosheet, rollers along the entire edge, holes along the lower edge, very similar to the Central Asian ones of the third group. They belong to the Early Scythian-

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They are dated to the 7th-6th centuries BC [Galanina, 1985, p. 182; Gorelik, 1987, p. 123; 1993, p.170]. N. L. Chlenova defines the time of bronze helmets ' existence in the North Caucasus within the 6th century BC [1993, p. 62]. According to a number of researchers, spherical bronze headlands were borrowed by the Scythians during their campaigns in Central Asia from the population of the Middle East and Iran. According to M. V. Gorelik, after the VI century BC, the Scythians did not use" cast helmets with cutouts " [Gorelik, 1993, p.170].

Central Asian bronze helmets are distinguished by a conical pommel or decorative crest, a nanosheet, earpieces, rollers around the edge and holes along the bottom edge. They have both elements that bring them closer to the Central Asian helmets of the third group, and significant differences. These headlands are quite convincingly attributed as Saka (Kuzmina, 1958, p. 123; Litvinsky, 1972, p. 127-128). The time of the existence of bronze helmets among the Central Asian Saks is determined from the VI-V centuries BC up to "the end of the I millennium BC". The Saks could have adopted the tradition of their manufacture from the Persians [Gorelik, 1993, p. 170].

Bronze helmets, similar in design to Central Asian ones, are known in the Late Bronze Age cultures of Northern China. Close to the first group were found at the Meilihe, Xingcun, and Chifeng sites; to the second - in Nananangeng and Shilishan (Komissarov, 1988, p.79; Khudyakov, 2003, p. 49); to the third - in Wujintang. These findings relate to the upper Xiajiadian culture in Manchuria and adjacent regions (Komissarov, 1988, p. 79). A number of monuments in Northern China, where bronze helmets were found, are radiocarbon dated to the 12th-10th centuries BC. According to some scientists, they could have been left by the Donghu, Xiongnu, or Shanjun [Varenov, 1994, p. 86-91; Komissarov, 1988, p.88-91]. These spherical bronze headlands differ significantly in their design features from the earlier Yin ones (Varenov, 1989, pp. 46-47). In China, the tradition of using bronze helmets became widespread at the beginning of the Zhou era, and in subsequent periods, combat headgear was made from other materials (Komissarov, 1988, p. 79). Some researchers believe that the bronze spherical " helmets "in Northern China were formed on the" Ancient Eastern (Near-Asian) basis " (Galanina, 1985, p.182). However, the earlier time of their existence allowed A.V. Varenov to suggest that the bronze "helmets" of the Saka and Scythian nomads of the Eurasian Steppe belt are derived from the battle heads of the nomads of Northern China (Varenov, 1984, p.47).

Among the helmets found in the Central Asian region, a find from the Upper Irtysh region received chronological and cultural attribution earlier than others. It was assigned to the Mayemir stage of the early nomad culture and dated to the 7th-6th centuries BC (Gryaznov, 1947, Fig. 5; Surazakov, 1979, p. 189]. M. V. Gorelik agreed with the proposed dating, but identified this helmet as Saka (1993, p. 170,341).

In 1994, a laboratory in Lyon conducted radiocarbon analysis of human bone samples from tile graves at the Emgant Hoshuu and Holtost Nuga sites in Northern Mongolia, where spherical bronze helmets with earplugs were found. According to its results, these objects date back to the XI-VII centuries BC (Erdenebaatar and Khudyakov, 2000, p. 143). Analysis of non-ferrous metal alloys used to make warheads from the Emgant Hoshuu, Holtost Nougat, and Elst Hoshuu monuments has shown that they are very similar in composition (Yeruul-Erdene and Ragzen, 1999, tal. 26 - 28]. All three helmets united in the first territorial group are typologically similar and belong to the spherical type with loops and earplugs. Therefore, it can be considered established that the battle heads of this group were part of the arsenal of defensive weapons of the nomads who left tile graves in the Late Bronze Age. A spherical helmet with earflaps and loops on them from Eastern Transbaikalia has a typological similarity to the combat headdresses of upper Xiajiadian culture carriers in Manchuria (Komissarov, 1987, p. 50). Since no monuments of this culture have been found in Eastern Transbaikalia, it can be assumed that this helmet belongs to the tile graves or Dvortsovskaya culture, in the materials of which similar elements can be traced with the subject complex of the upper Xiajiadianlayer culture [Ibid., p. 42].

The bronze spherical helmet from Mount Hythruun is most likely dated to the Late Bronze Age and Early Scythian period. Its design is similar to that of the Irtysh region and therefore can be attributed to the tile grave culture or to the culture of the Early Scythian or Early Saka circle, whose monuments in Central Mongolia have not yet been identified. Judging by the available archaeological materials, the nomadic population that left the tile graves during the late Bronze Age had constant military contacts on the territory of Central Asia with the carriers of the Kereksur and deer stone culture. At the turn of the Early Iron Age, the latter was differentiated into several cultures of the Early Scythian type, including the Maiemir culture (Khudyakov, 1987, pp. 159-160). During military clashes.

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nomads could borrow from each other the most advanced weapons models for their time. Helmets of this type were probably adopted by the bearers of the tile grave culture from the nomads of Southern Manchuria, and at the turn of the early Iron Age they became the object of borrowing by the nomads of the Sayano-Altai. In the Early Scythian period, ancient nomads of the steppes of Eastern Europe used such fighting headlands.

Conclusion

The appearance of metal protective battle heads was an important milestone in the development of military affairs of the ancient nomads of the Steppe belt of Eurasia. According to a number of researchers, it was associated with the development of bladed weapons. A.V. Varenov believes that bronze helmets-"helmets" could appear in service with soldiers in those areas "where chopping weapons were in use, for example, such as Karasuk swords found in Transbaikalia" [1984, p.47]. This point of view was supported by S. A. Komissarov, according to whom such helmets could be used to protect against blows "when fencing with an opponent armed with a sword" [1987, p. 51]. However, as noted by one of the authors of this article, the bronze swords discovered in Transbaikalia were not intended for fencing and slashing. By the design of the blade, crosshair and handle, it is obvious that this is a stabbing weapon. Therefore, the appearance of such blades could encourage the improvement of means of protecting the torso of warriors, for example, protective belts or shields. Metal battle heads appeared with the development of other types of melee shock weapons - battle axes, chisels, and bites. In Central Asia, in the Late Bronze Age, such weapons were most formidable and effective in the hands of charioteer warriors-carriers of the Kereksur and deer stone culture (Khudyakov, 1987, p. 158). It is no coincidence that it was often depicted on deer stones as part of the charioteer armament complex (Volkov, 1981, p. 231).

The main opponents of the ancient Caucasian nomads, who moved on their chariots in the Late Bronze Age from the western regions to the east of Central Asia, were the carriers of the tile grave culture. To successfully resist the onslaught of charioteers armed with bites in battle, they needed highly effective protective equipment, including metal helmets. Probably, the carriers of the tile grave culture borrowed them from their southern neighbors, the nomads of Southern Manchuria, who constantly fought with the ancient Chinese and mastered new types of personal metal protection equipment, among which were spherical helmets with earplugs. The use of such battle heads, along with the development of horse riding and tactics of loose formation, should have significantly reduced the impact power of war chariots, which led to the spread of carriers of the tile grave culture throughout Eastern and Central Mongolia, up to the Mongolian Altai. In the course of military clashes with them, the nomads of the Sayano-Altai borrowed from them one of the forms of bronze helmets.

There is no doubt that bronze headstones, which used a significant amount of high-quality metal and a large amount of skilled labor of foundry workers and gunsmiths, should have been highly valued in ancient times [Khudyakov, 2003, p. 23]. This is best supported by the comparative rarity of such finds in the monuments of the tile graves culture. Probably, the bronze helmets of its wearers performed not only protective, but also symbolic functions. They could belong to the helmet-bearers - military leaders, noble warriors, selected vigilantes who surrounded the leaders and decided the outcome of the battle at the most crucial moments of the fighting.

However, according to another point of view, in the late Bronze Age, bronze helmets were used by the ancient nomads of Mongolia quite widely, since they were often depicted on petroglyphs. Among such images, D. Erdenebaatar attributed the figures of warriors and hunters in headdresses, which are usually called mushroom-shaped. According to his interpretation, helmeted horsemen are also depicted on a bronze mirror accidentally found in the Dundgob aimag in Mongolia (Erdenebaatar, 1997, zur. 4). However, this argument is difficult to accept in relation to monuments of the tile graves culture, which is characterized by completely different techniques and style of colorful drawings of the "Selenga" type. The Dundgobian mirror with engraved images must belong to the Scythian period (Erdenebaatar and Khudyakov, 2000, p. 147). It should also be noted that archers in" mushroom-shaped " headdresses were often depicted on petroglyphs in scenes of hunting wild ungulates. For such a hunt, such protective equipment is not needed.

Analysis of the Khitruun find revealed that the ancient nomads of Mongolia used different types of helmets to protect their heads. In the Late Bronze Age, bronze spherical battle heads with earflaps were used, and at the turn of the Early Scythian period, spherical helmets with a nanosheel and a nasatylnik were also adopted.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 07.04.08.

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