As a result of the work of P. K. Kozlov's expedition in 1924-1927, as well as the Russian-Mongolian expedition in 2006 and 2009, five lacquer cups with handles (er bay) with inscriptions from the Western Han Dynasty were found in Noin-Ul. The article compares variants of known translations of inscriptions, as well as offers reading, translation and analysis of inscriptions on recently found lacquer cups. By the method of comparative analysis, it is established that the inscriptions on the cups from Noin-Uly are typical (except for the cup from Kurgan No. 6), they usually indicate the workshop, date of manufacture, positions and surnames of officials who managed the production process and controlled it. An ornament is considered: it helps to determine whether a product belongs to a particular workshop.

Keywords: Western Han Dynasty, Noin-Ula, lacquerware, cup with a pair of handles (er bei), hieroglyphic inscription, Caogong Workshop, Chang'an, Xigong Workshop, Shu County, Gongguan Workshop, Guanghan County.

Introduction

Lacquer products are one of the most important elements of the culture of Ancient China. They were used and also placed in the grave during the burial rite. Many lacquer objects have been found in China and Korea, but according to Hong Shi (2006: 161-168), there are just over 70 items with inscriptions among them. Among the finds from Mongolia, there are only six such items: five cups with handles and one box. All of them were found in Xiongnu mounds, which, in our opinion, indicates the high social status of their owners. These lacquer objects are known from excavations that were carried out in Noin-Ulev in 1924-1927. by P. K. Kozlov (Rudenko, 1962) and A. D. Simukov, and in 2006 and 2009 by the Russian - Mongolian expedition (Polos'mak, Bogdanov, Tseveendorzh, and Erdene-Ochir, 2008; Polos'mak, Bogdanov, Tseveendorzh, 2009). Noinulin collection includes 11 cups with two handles (er bay). Among the lacquer products, the most important ones for our research are cups with hieroglyphic inscriptions. Their reading made it possible to establish the workshop, the date of manufacture of the vessel, its volume, the method of making the base for the cup, the names of the masters, as well as the officials who controlled the production process.

The purpose of this article is to translate and analyze the inscriptions on Er bei lacquer cups from the Noin - Ulin mounds, as well as to study some features of the organization of lacquer production in the Western Han era (206 BC-9 AD).

Lettering on lacquer cups with handles

The bei cup (bowl) with two ear handles has an ellipsoid shape, most characteristic of lacquer vessels of the Zhanguo (403 - 221 BC), Qin (221 - 207 BC) and Han (206 BC - 220 AD) periods., for the first time, the shape that repeats the outline of half a pumpkin was given to products in the south of China. It is a feature of most of the lacquer products made from noin-

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Ulinsky mounds [Lubo-Lesnichenko, 1969, p. 268]. The ears on the cup are reinforced with gilded metal plates (shackles). The body is painted with various types of ornaments.

The date of the burial grounds in the Noin-Ula Mountains was mainly based on the inscription on a lacquered cup from Mound No. 6 (Umehara, 1960, p. 30, Fig. LIX), which is currently kept in the collections of the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. The inscription, first read by O. Kymmel and S. Umehara, indicates the exact date of manufacture of the product-2 BC [Bernstam, 1937, pp. 947-948]. The cup in question was repeatedly published in various publications, and experts were interested in its ornament, as well as the inscription. Here are all the options for deciphering this hieroglyphic inscription.

1. The inscription published by S. Umakhara looks like this: [1960, p. 30]. It is not accompanied by a translation. S. Umehara explains that the motto of the Jianping reign falls at the end of the reign of the Aidi Emperor of the Early (Western) Han dynasty. As the researcher notes, the 5th year of Jianping actually did not exist, this motto of the board was valid for only four years [Ibid.]. Indeed, the reign of Jianping lasted from 6 to 3 years BC, and 2 to 1 years BC corresponds to the motto of the rule of Yuanshou [Bolshoy..., 1983, pp. 158-159]. S. Umehara suggests considering the 5th year of Jianping as the 1st year of Yuanshou and accordingly dating it to 2 BC.E. [1960, p. 30]. The Chinese researcher Hong Shi is of the same opinion and also dates the Noin-Ulin cup to 2 BC [2006, p. 167]. Chinese experts, without giving comments, correlate the 5th year under the motto of the Jianping rule with 4 BC [Handai..., 2008, p. 93].

2. O. Kymmel interprets the text as follows: The translation of this inscription was also made by E. I. Lubo-Lesnichenko: "The 9th month of the 5th year (under the motto of the board) of Chien-ping. Master Tang-ching, artist Ho, master Yi, observation of Tian-wu "(Jianping wu nian jiu yue gong Wang Tan-ching hua gong Ho gongxuan Tian-wu) [1969, pp. 275-276]. According to E. I. Lubo-Lesnichenko, reading the inscription of S. Umehara is more correct than reading O. Kymmel, except that the hieroglyph ho in the artist's name should be read as and [Ibid.].

3. Translation of the inscription by A. N. Bernshtam (he does not cite the inscription itself): "September of the 5th year of Qian Ping; manufacturer Wang Tan Ching, painter Huo, manufacturer Yi, supreme supervision of Bian-Wu" [1937, p.955].

4. The hieroglyphs inscribed on the cup from Noinuli burial mound No. 6 are also given by Korean researchers: [Hanguk kymsokmun...].

5. One of the last translations of the inscription on the cup belongs to M. Pirazzoli-Serstevens. The hieroglyphic inscription that she cites in her work and its interpretation do not differ from the Korean version: "Made in the 5th year of Jianping [2nd year BC] in the 9th month [September / October] by master Wang Tanjing, artist Ho. Inspected: supervisor of workshop U "[Pirazzoli-t'serstevens, 2009, p. 36].

Photo of a hieroglyphic inscription on a cup from the Noinuli burial mound. No. 6, taken by macro photography and published in the works of S. Umehara [1960, Fig. LIX, 2], as well as S. S. Minyaeva and Yu. I.Elikhina [2010, p. 172, Figures 2, 5-7], allows us to discuss in detail some important issues for reading it. According to S. S. Minyaev, "minor discrepancies in the reading of the inscription among specialists are not of fundamental importance, since the initial hieroglyphs denoting the motto of the years of government have been preserved in their original form" [Ibid., p. 171, Fig. 2, 6]. This statement does not seem entirely correct. First, the "initial hieroglyphs indicating the motto and month of the government, made in fine engraving" have not actually been preserved. They are difficult to distinguish even with macro photography (see: [Ibid., Fig. 2, 6]). Secondly, the inscription on the cup from mound No. 6 is made in an uncharacteristic place for such products - along the rim of the donets. This feature distinguishes the vessel from several dozen similar ones. The inscriptions on the cups were cut in a strictly defined place-at the bottom, under the ornament, between two rows of red lines encircling the cup. Third, the inscription does not comply with the rules of ancient Chinese grammar: before the gong character - "work", "work", "have a skill" - the character indicating the type of work must be indicated. No explanatory dictionary gives the meaning "to make"for this hieroglyph. Fourth, the structure of this inscription does not correspond to any other inscription. The inscriptions on Han lacquer products have a certain structure. There are only two basic structures that distinguish inscriptions: those for the capital's workshop and those for other workshops (see [Chistyakova, 2009, pp. 61-63]). The inscription on the cup from Noin-Ula burial mound No. 6 does not mention the workshop, which is characteristic of other inscriptions. The full name of the manufacturer is given, not just a single family character. On products of the Han Dynasty, the names of the workshop workers were never fully indicated, but only one family character was given. In place of the date of manufacture, as a rule, only the motto of the board is inscribed, without specifying the month. The inscription indicating the month of manufacture on the cup from Noin-Ulinsky mound No. 6 is the only one among all known inscriptions of this kind (there are about 100 of them). It should be noted that

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E. I. Lubo-Lesnichenko in one of his works mentioned a similar writing of the board's motto (with an indication of the date of manufacture) on a box from Changsha [1969, p. 275]. In the work of the Chinese researcher Shang Chengzuo, the inscription on the box (case) of Lian from Changsha is given: The author interprets it as follows:" The date of the 29th year of the 6th day of a certain month... " [1996, pp. 31-35]. However, this publication only gives the author's drawing of the signs, which may not be entirely accurate. In addition, the characters are not written in Han Chinese characters. Shang Chengzuo himself expresses surprise that there is a day after the year and only a month after it. Therefore, we cannot consider this inscription as an analogy. In addition, the Noin-Ulin cup from mound No. 6 is written in red paint: - "Shanglin" - the name of the imperial park or palace. With a similar inscription, we know another product-a lacquered pan dish, with the same hieroglyphs inscribed on its bottom. The dish was found in border No. 1 of the Sanyandun burial ground of the Western Han Dynasty, Yancheng City, prov. Jiangsu [Handai..., 2008, p. 91].

M. Pirazzoli - Serstevens believes that the cup from Noin-Ula burial mound No. 6 was made in one of the private workshops for the imperial court [Pirazzoli-t'serstevens, 2009, p. 36-37]. We cannot agree with this conclusion, because even in private workshops, the writing of hieroglyphs was extremely sensitive: the hieroglyphs had to be smooth, clear and of a standard size. After reviewing the original items with inscriptions and numerous photographs of inscriptions on lacquer products, we are inclined to believe that the inscription in question was probably made not by the Chinese (not Han), but according to the Chinese model. This is indicated by the presence of corrections and lines made with a rough tool, the manner of writing hieroglyphs, and the non-standard location of the inscription.

Returning to the question of the motto of the board, which, according to S. S. Minyaev, is "present" on the cup from mound No. 6, we note that the safety of the signs does not allow us to talk about their decryption. The inscription "the 5th year of Jianping" is found on a cup discovered by A. D. Simukov in 1927 during the excavation of the burial mounds. N 1* in the Tsurumte paddy also in the Noin-Ula Mountains [L'Asie des steppes..., 2001, p. 147, pic. 128]. This cup was also in the possession of S. Umehara [1960, Fig. LXI], and on the basis of the inscription on it, by analogy, as it seems to us, he "read" the inscription on the cup from mound No. 6.

On a cup found by A. D. Simukov in Kurgan. No. 1 of the Tsurumte burial ground, there is the following inscription**:

- "In the 5th year of Jianping, the Shu County Sigun Workshop [produced] a bei cup for the imperial court. It is covered with varnish, with an inscription and an ornament. [Base] made of wood, with yellow "ears". Volume 1 sheng and 16 yue. The foundation was made by [Master] Zun. Applied a lacquer base [master] Pou, secondary varnish coating [master by last name] Shou, put in yellow ears and covered with [gilding] [master] Zong, applied a drawing Applied an inscription (or an ornament with red varnish) [master] Washed the lacquer product [master] Bai, ran the Fu workshop. They followed the work of [scribe] - zushi Xun, representative of [county chief] - Zhang Ke, [assistant county chief] - cheng Jun, [assistant] - Yuan Li, representative of [chief of chancery] - lingshi Yan " [Chistyakova, 2009, p. 67].

In 2006 and 2009, a Russian-Mongolian expedition excavated two more mounds at Suzukte Padi in the Noin-Ula Mountains, where three more identical Er bay lacquer cups with inscriptions were found. The inscription on cup No. 1, discovered in 2006 during the excavation of mound No. 20, consists of 46 hieroglyphs:

- "[For] the imperial court [made] a cup of bei, covered with varnish, with an inscription and an ornament. [Base] made of wood, with yellow ears. Volume 1 sheng and 16 yue. In the 4th year of Yuanyang in the Caogong workshop [master] Tun restored (improved). Applied an inscription (or applied an ornament with red varnish) [master] Xian. Led by the deputy [junior official] - zocheng Wen, [supervisor] - sefu [last name] Xun, [assistant] - Yuan Wen. Controlled by [right assistant to the county chief] - yucheng Guang, [head of the county chancellery] - ling Tan"***.

The following inscription is made on cup No. 2::

- "Directed... [assistant] - Yuan Xiao. Controlled before-

* S. S. Minyaev quite rightly points out that this cup in most foreign publications is mistakenly attributed to finds from burial mounds 5 or 6 [Minyaev and Elikhina, 2010, p. 173]. However, he is wrong when he claims that the mound studied by A. D. Simukov has no number. On the plans made by the participants of the expedition P. K. Kozlov, objects in the padi Tsurumte are numbered.

** Hereafter, the symbol indicates the part of the inscription that was lost at the time of reading. We can't just restore the names of the masters.

*** A separate publication was devoted to the deciphering of this inscription and its historical interpretation: [Chistyakova, 2009].

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The representative of [the right assistant to the county chief] is Yucheng Ch Rong, and the representative of [the county chief of Chancery] is Lin Hua."

The cup is badly deformed, only 12 characters and half of the character Chen - "official" are preserved on it (Fig. 1). The first part of the inscription is missing. However, according to the characteristic composition of the official positions of yucheng - "right assistant to the county chief", lin - "clerk", as well as the presence of the hieroglyph chen - "servant" and the final hieroglyph sheng - "control" in the inscription, it can be assumed that the hieroglyphic scheme of both inscriptions is identical and the inscriptions were made in the capital's Kaogong (or Gonggong) workshop.) in Chang'an.

The cup from Noin-Ula burial mound No. 31 is broken and cracked, but the inscription is almost completely preserved (Fig. 2).:

Fig. 1. Cup N 2 from mound N 20, Noin-Ula.

- "[For] the imperial court [made] a cup-bay, covered with varnish, with an inscription and an ornament. [Base] made of wood, with yellow "ears". Volume 1 sheng and 16 yue. In the 4th year of Yuanyang, in the Caogong workshop, [master] Xiang was made. Applied an inscription (or applied an ornament with red varnish) [master] Xian. They were led by [scribe] Hu Long, deputy [junior official] zocheng Wen, [supervisor] sefu Xun, [chief of Chancery] lingshi [assistant] Yuan Wen. They were controlled by [right assistant county chief] yucheng Guang, [chief of the county chancellery] lin ."

Similar cups, decorated on the body with ornaments in the form of several pairs of phoenixes and hieroglyphic inscriptions, were found on other monuments in the territory controlled by the Xiongnu. For example, in pogr. N 50 and 58 in Ilmovaya Padi (Transbaikalia) [Konovalov, 1976, p. 79, 198-199, fig. 22] and others.

In connection with the analysis, it is also important to pay attention to the inscription on the wooden lacquer box from Kurgan. No. 7 of the Xiongnu burial ground in Padi Tsaram (excavations by S. S. Minyaev). Reconstruction of the inscription and its translation prepared by M. Pirazzoli-Serstevens [Pirazzoli-t'serstevens, 2007, p. 56-58; Pirazzoli-Serstevens, 2008, p. 71-74]:

- "For the use of the Emperor, in [...] the year of the motto [...] was made in the imperial workshop of Kaogong by Master Shang. Supervised (observed): The supervisor of the workshop is your humble servant Kang, the head of the varnish department is your humble servant An. Inspected: right assistant director your humble servant [ ... ] - director your humble servant [...] and head of the mac inspection-

Fig. 2. Cup from mound No. 31, Noin-Ula.

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tersky is your humble servant Rong" [Pirazzoli-Serstevens, 2008, pp. 72-74].

It should be noted that the transcription of surnames is incorrect: "An" should be transcribed as "An", and "Rong" as "Zun". The author translates the character yuan, which denotes the position, as "head of the varnish department". No dictionary gives the meaning "department head"for this character. It was found that the character yuan is present in the inscriptions on bronze products. So, on the bronze tripod ding, cast in the Kaogong workshop, the motto of the board "the third year of Yunshi" (14 BC) and the position of yuan of one of the controlling officials named Ming are indicated, in particular. Therefore, in our opinion, it is incorrect to translate the hieroglyph as a position related only to the lacquer industry.

A comparison of inscriptions made in the same year shows an almost complete coincidence of the nominal hieroglyphs of the masters, as well as the officials who controlled the production (for example, cup No. 1 from mound 20 and cup from mound No. 31; see the table). There is an explanation for this: both cups were made at the same time - in the 4th year of Yuanyang, only the first one was restored by Master Tong, and the second one was made by Master Xiang. According to the materials provided by Hong Shi [2006, p. 161-168], in the inscriptions on the same type of products made in one year under the same motto of the board and in one workshop, the maximum number of matches is given by the nominal hieroglyphs of masters and officials. On products made in different years, the nominal characters of officials are often different, since under Han, the officials who controlled the workshops for the production of lacquer products changed often-once every one or two years [Zhang Rong, 2005, p. 109].

In the inscriptions on products from the Xigong and Gongguan imperial workshops, officials are listed in order from highest to lowest, and on vessels from the Caogong workshop-in order of promotion. Not all positions are listed in the labels on items of different times: the names of some supervisors are omitted. This can be explained by the fact that there were changes in the order of listing posts or simply the order of entry was not established [Hong Shi, 2006, p. 175, 191, 192]. To clarify this issue, it would be possible to have a charter for artisans who worked in state workshops, which was created during the Han Dynasty [Eliseeff V., Eliseeff D., 2007, p. 179]. However, this document has not yet been published.

Another problem that arises in the course of studying the inscriptions on cups is their capacity. On three cups (from mounds N 1, 20 (cup N 1) and N 31), the same volume is indicated in 1 sheng and 16 yue, which is approximately 340 ml. However, a comparison of the actual volume showed that the cups differ from each other. Discrepancies can be explained by manufacturing errors - after all, manual work. It is also possible that the differences in the volume of cups are related to the principle of assigning salaries, which existed under the Han. The amount of payments was symbolically measured in grain, which was also an indicator of rank [Volkov, 1999, p. 124]. This does not mean that a salary was issued in cups. In the commentary to the Lun Heng, it is stated that the salary of an official during the Han Empire was calculated in measures of grain (rice, millet, wheat); the grain tribute was approximately 30 kg (or 31.28 kg).

Table. Procedure for listing posts in inscriptions on lacquer products from the territory of Mongolia

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The salary of an average employee was 100 danes per year, and that of higher officials was 2-10 thousand danes [Drevnekitayskaya filosofiya..., 1990, p. 455]. The cups in question were intended for eating and drinking. However, most inscriptions on both lacquer and bronze products indicate the capacity of the vessel (1 sheng 16 yue or 3 sheng, 1 dou, etc.). A clear indication of the volume in the inscription served as an indicator of the rank of the owner of the thing.

An interesting source of information on this topic is the ornament on vessels. It is diverse, but on air bay cups with inscriptions, one of the most common is the ornament "a pair of opposing phoenixes". According to E. I. Lubo-Lesnichenko, the findings of recent years allow us to trace the development of this motif. "The initial stage in its evolution can serve as the ornament of the Noin-Ula cup, where the phoenixes are conveyed in flexible, confident lines, with a strict economy of details. The ornaments of two lacquer cups, dating from 3-4 AD, found in Lolan and Guiyang, as well as the cups kept in the Musée national des Arts asiatiques-Guimet or Musée Guimet in Paris, represent the next stage in the development of this motif. Phoenixes are heavy, clumsy, and lacking in graceful proportion, with a disproportionately enlarged torso and almost no neck. The process of decomposition of this motif appears already in a developed form on a lacquer cup found on the Datun River and dated to 13 AD. The stylized bird body occupies almost the entire space. One of the phoenix's legs, with its excessively enlarged toes, is almost separated from the body, and only three dashes remain from the other leg. The feather on his back was much smaller and almost merged with the crest on his head. The final stage in the process of stylization of this motif is an ornament on a lacquer cup from Guiyang, dated to the beginning of the Eastern Han (25-220 AD). "Opposing phoenixes" turned into a complex pattern of curves and curls. Here it is difficult to find a stylized phoenix body, the rest of the front paw in the form of three stylized claws, and tail feathers in the form of whorls separate from the body" [1969, pp. 273-274]. The researcher rightly noted the features of the images, but the scheme of development of the motif proposed by him does not seem perfect if we compare the ornament "opposing phoenixes" on four cups from the Noin-Ula mounds. Thus, the phoenixes on the cups from the mounds N 20 and 31, made in the Caogun workshop in the 4th year of the Yuanyang (corresponds to 9 BC), are made more schematically, more carelessly and less detailed than on the cup from the mounds. No. 1 (found by A. D. Simukov), which was made in the Sigun workshop in the 5th year of Jianping (2nd year BC).

Perhaps stylistic differences in the execution of one ornament are due to the fact that the vessels were made in different workshops, and not chronological differences.

Conclusions

Inscriptions and ornaments on lacquer products allow us to make an assumption about the date of the mound, specify the time of making things and determine the workshop in which they were made. According to the results of a comparative analysis, almost all the inscriptions were typical for the Western Han era, except for the inscription on the cup of kurg. N 6. Therefore, if there is only a part of the inscription in the order of listing the positions of officials, you can set up a workshop: if this order reflects a decrease in importance - in the state Sigun and Gongguan, if it increases - in the capital workshop that belonged to Shaofu. It is obvious that cup No. 2 from mound No. 20 (although the inscription on it is not completely preserved) was made in the Kaogong workshop in Chang'an. Cup from kurg. No. 1 in Tsurumte Paddy is made in the Sigun workshop. The rest of the lacquer products found on the territory of Mongolia in the burials of noble Xiongnu in the burial ground in Suzukte Padi (Noin-Ula) are products of the capital's Kaogun workshop.

Thus, it confirms the assumption that the Noin-Ula burial mounds contain the Xiongnu Shanyu and their entourage, who received gifts directly from the imperial storerooms (workshops). This is evidenced by other rich accompanying material. The lacquer items found in Lolan, Han Prefecture in Korea, judging by the inscriptions, were made in the Sigun and Gunguan workshops in Chengdu, from which we can conclude that these things did not belong to the gifts of the Chinese emperor to foreigners, they belonged to Chinese officials who lived in this territory. The care of creating a strict hierarchy and dividing into groups of any community was one of the features of the Han era, which is reflected in the inscriptions on the lacquer cups.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 07.06.11.

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