T. L. DEITCH, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Institute of Africa, Russian Academy of Sciences

Keywords: China, Africa, trade, raw materials, finished goods, markets, tariffs

China-Africa trade ties are rapidly gaining momentum. Although they developed significantly in the 1990s, the PRC also exported textiles, tableware, canned goods, medicines, and agricultural machinery to Africa, while buying agricultural products in the continent's countries. In the twenty-first century, African mineral resources became the object of Beijing's special attention.

In the first decade of this century, the annual growth of China-Africa trade exceeded 20%. From the first summit of the China-Africa Cooperation Forum in 2000 to mid-2005, China signed more than 40 trade agreements with African countries, and the volume of trade doubled. Subsequently, it continued to grow. In 2006, the British Economist Intelligence Unit predicted that China would become the dominant trade and economic power in Africa by 2010. At the same time, it will continue to displace the traditional partners of African states - the United States, Great Britain and France-from the continent.¹ This forecast was fully justified.

Speaking at a meeting of the Board of Directors of the African Development Bank (ADB) in Shanghai in 2007, then Premier Wen Jiabao said that although China's trade with Africa is still 3 times less than its trade with the United States, it is already three times more than its trade with Russia and exceeds the volume of trade with France and the United States. United Kingdom, combined ².

CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES: WHO'S AHEAD?

In 2007, the US outperformed China in trade with Africa: The US trade turnover with the countries of the African continent was $99.5 billion, while the Sino-African trade turnover was $73.5 billion.³ In 2008, according to the General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China, China's trade turnover with African countries increased by 45.1% and amounted to $106.84 billion.⁴ According to the 2010 U.S. Statistical Handbook, U.S. trade with the continent increased by more than $35 billion in 2008. and it amounted to $140.4 billion, ⁵ which means that the United States retained its primacy in trade with Africa at that time.

In 2009, China-Africa trade declined to $90.07 billion due to the global financial crisis.⁶ The crisis further affected US trade with Africa, amounting to $86.103 billion.⁷ Thus, in 2009, China still surpassed the United States, becoming the main trading partner of African countries. In 2010-2012, the-

Table 1

China's trade with African countries in 2000-2013

Source: Direction of Trade Statistics. Yearbook. IMF. Wash. 2000 - 2012; China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013). Information Office of the State Council the People's Republic of China. Beijing. August 2013; Regional Focus: China-Africa // China Analyst. April 2014 - www.thebeijingaxis.com/tca/ editions/the-china-analyst-apr-2014/236-regionar-focus-china-africa

Table 2

China's Top Ten trading partners in Africa in 2010-2013

Source: China's Reform at a crossroads. Regional Focus: China Africa // The China Analyst. Apr. 2012 - http://www.thebeijingaxis.com.tca/editions/the-china-analyst-apr-2012/123; Cisse Dauda. China engagement in Africa: opportunities and challenges for Africa. Africa Creative Economy Conference. Cape Town. 06 - 09 Oct. 2013. Centre for Chinese Studies. Stellenbosch, South Africa. 2013; Regional Focus: China-Africa // China Analyst. April 2012 -http://www.thebeijingaxis.com/tca/editions/the-china-analyst-april-2012/123; Regional Focus: China-Africa // China Analyst. April 2014...

The China-Africa trade turnover continued to grow: according to the China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation White Paper published in 2013, its volume was $198.49 billion ⁸, and in 2013 - $210.2 billion ⁹ (see Table 1).

CHINA'S LEADING TRADING PARTNERS

For a number of African countries, China has become the main trading partner. In 2005, it was South Africa and Angola, followed by Sudan, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo and Egypt. Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Morocco, Libya and Benin were also among the countries whose trade with China exceeded $1 billion in 2005. The main importers of Chinese products in Africa in 2005 were South Africa, Nigeria, Algeria, Sudan, and Morocco; the main exporters to China were Angola, South Africa, Sudan, the Republic of the Congo (ROK), Egypt, and Equatorial Guinea.

Over the next 5 years, the list of China's leading trading partners in Africa changed slightly, but still the leading partners of China were the oil-producing countries of Africa plus South Africa. Thus, over 50% of China's trade with Africa accounted for only 5 countries: Angola (19%), South Africa (17%), Sudan, Nigeria and Egypt (7% each) ¹⁰. With most of them, China had a trade deficit, while more than 30 countries on the continent, including the least developed countries (LDCs), on the contrary, had a negative trade balance with China.

In 2010-2013, South Africa, Angola, Sudan, Nigeria, and Egypt were still among the top five trading partners of the PRC (see Table 2). However, events in Sudan affected the role of this country in trade with China: in 2012, Sudan was ranked last in the list of top 10 Chinese partners. and in 2013, it rose only to ninth place, swapping places with the DRC ¹¹. Algeria (even ranked among China's top five trading partners in 2013) and the Republic of Kazakhstan (ranked 6th in 2013) are firmly established in the list of China's main trading partners in Africa, which is associated with the growth of oil exports of these countries to China.

At the same time, the main African exporters to China were South Africa, Angola, Sudan (until 2012), Kazakhstan, DRC, and the main importers from China were South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt, Algeria, and Ghana ^.12

NOMENCLATURE AND BALANCE OF BILATERAL TRADE

The steady growth of Chinese exports to Africa was supported by measures taken by the Chinese authorities aimed at improving the export structure of goods, improving the quality and expanding the product range. Today, in addition to clothing, footwear, and textiles, which were previously the mainstay of Chinese exports, Beijing exports to Africa consumer electronics, electrical goods, machine products, plastics, rolled steel, rice, tea, tableware, canned goods, medicines, etc.

In 2012, the share of machinery products in Chinese exports to Africa reached 45.9%¹³. African countries import electrical goods ($10.3 billion in 2012), automobiles ($5.4 billion), sea and river vessels ($4 billion).¹⁴. The supply of industrial products to African markets includes sophisticated machinery such as thermal and hydroelectric turbines, telecommunications equipment, and mobile networks. Sales to Africa of Chinese technologies used, in particular, in mechanical engineering and the food industry are growing. In a number of African countries, such as Egypt, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, branches of the Chinese Society for the Export and Import of Aviation Technology focused on the production of civil instruments and products have been opened.

Table 3

China's Trade balance with Africa in 2000-2013 ($bn)

Источник: China-Africa Trade: from China and Africa's Global Trade Perspectives // TradeMark Southern Africa News. 12.08.2011 -http://www.tradeniarksa.org/news/china-africa-trade-china-andafricas; Adekinle B., Gutau C.W. Illusion or Reality: Understanding the Trade Flow between China and Sub-Saharan Africa. March 2011 - http://www.csac.ox.ac.uk/ conferencts/2011-EDIA papers/046-Adekunle; China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013). China Commodities. China commodities new blog. August 2013 - http://www.chinacommodities/2013/08/29/fulltext-china-africa-econo-mic-and-trade-cooperat ion-2013(2); Regional Focus: China-Africa // China Analyst. April 2014...

The growth of Chinese exports to Africa is stimulated by loans provided to countries of the continent for the purchase of equipment in China. Such loans, in particular, contribute to the growth of sales of Chinese military-technical products, which occupy a significant place in Chinese exports to African countries.

The limited range of export products of most African countries remains a problem in bilateral trade. Africa's exports continue to be dominated by raw materials and agricultural products, with oil accounting for about 40% and agricultural products accounting for more than 25%. Only a few countries, such as Kenya and Zambia, have managed to partially diversify their exports, but the share of manufactured goods in African exports as a whole remains significantly lower than in the exports of other developing countries.¹⁵ In addition, African exports have low added value; they are usually raw materials that have been subjected to primary processing.

The low competitiveness of many African products is also due to their relative high cost, which is partly the result of low labor productivity in most of the continent's enterprises. In addition, African exports are characterized by high so-called indirect costs, including electricity, land, transportation, telecommunications, security, insurance and marketing. Average prices in the African commodity group are 31% higher than expected in determining their profitability. (In contrast, they are 20% lower in China and 13% lower in South Asia.)¹⁶ All of this makes Africa pay attention to its export problems. An example is Senegal, which has managed to reduce indirect costs somewhat ¹⁷.

As the imbalance in China-Africa trade is a subject of criticism from Africans, and the Chinese economy's demand for raw materials imports is growing, the PRC is taking active measures to make bilateral trade more balanced. Packages of documents are signed with African partners that give them a number of privileges. These include direct financial assistance, investments, cheap loans, assistance in the implementation of projects, primarily in the field of transport infrastructure, training programs for specialists, etc. Chinese enterprises entering the African market are encouraged to engage not only in the sale of their own products, but also in marketing activities in order to find products that can be exported to China. ¹⁸

All these measures are bearing fruit. From 2000 to 2013, China's imports from Africa increased more than 20-fold. While in 2000, African exports to China were only $4.6 billion, in 2013 they were already $117.4 billion. (see Table 3) 19^.

In 2012, Angola, South Africa, the Republic of the Congo, Liberia, DRC, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, and Gabon had a positive balance in trade with China. Nigeria, Egypt, Ghana, Togo, Kenya, Morocco, Benin, Tanzania, and a number of other countries brought the balance of bilateral trade with a deficit.

NOT JUST OIL

Chinese imports from Africa are dominated by resources and primary products. The main imports in 2012 were mineral fuels, ores, copper, precious metals, wood, cotton, steel, cereals and tobacco: they accounted for 71.48% of Chinese imports from Africa. Raw materials account for the lion's share of imports. This is primarily crude oil, which accounted for 49.59% of China's $53.8 billion worth of imports from ^the continent in 2012, or 24.41% of all Chinese oil imports20.

China buys oil from Angola, Sudan, Algeria, Chad, South Korea, Equatorial Guinea, and a number of other countries.

other countries. Until recently, China was the second largest importer of African oil after the United States; today, the situation has changed. If in 2010 the US imported 2 million barrels of oil per day (b/d) from Africa, then in the first four months of 2014, the import of African oil to the US fell to 170 thousand b / d, while China imported 1.2 million b / d (22% of African oil exports)in the same period. Thus, China has taken the place of the United States as the largest importer of African oil21.

It's not just oil that attracts Beijing. The Chinese economy largely relies on coal resources, which is due to the significant share of the industrial sector in it, which uses a large amount of coal.

China is the main consumer of coal in the world - 47% (USA-14%, India-9%). According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, its share will grow to ⁵⁷% by 202522. Beijing's coal imports in January 2013 increased by ⁵⁶%, according to Chinese customs, compared to the same period in 2012.23the main African coal exporter to China is South Africa.

China is the world's largest producer of steel and copper products. Hence its growing demand for iron and copper ores. Africa provides 56% of China's copper imports for electronics production; Zambia and DRC are the main suppliers.²⁴ China imports from Africa 90% of the cobalt it needs, 35% of manganese, ³⁰% of tantalum25; it buys phosphates from Morocco, copper and cobalt from Zambia and the DRC, iron ore, gold and platinum from South Africa, platinum, uranium and chromium from Zimbabwe.

China consumes about 30% of the world's ore production. Its growing appetites are partly attributed to the rapid increase in mineral prices in recent years. So, from January 2000 to May 2012, the price of copper on the world market increased from $1,844 to $7,897 per meter, tons; for iron ore-from $12.45 to $136 per meter, tons ²⁶, which, of course, turned out to be in the hands of African exporters of non-ferrous metals and iron ore raw materials.

China also imports coke, pulp, paper waste, and wood from Africa. Deforestation restrictions imposed in China in 1998 have led it to become one of the largest importers of forest products. Almost all Chinese furniture is made from imported wood, much of which comes from African countries. The PRC accounts for approximately 46% of Gabon's timber exports, 60% of Equatorial Guinea's timber exports, and 11% of Cameroon's timber exports.²⁷ China is also a major consumer of African agricultural products. These are mainly cotton, silk, hemp, palm oil and rice.

TRADE WITH AFRICA IS A RELENTLESS CONCERN OF BEIJING

The development of China-Africa trade is the focus of the summits and conferences of the China-Africa Cooperation Forum. The Program for the Development of China's Foreign Economic Relations with the Black Continent adopted at the Forum's Beijing Summit in 2000 provided for: 1) oblige Chinese enterprises to give priority to the import of African products; 2) promote the activities of Chinese investment and trade centers in Africa and the establishment of similar centers of African countries in China; 3) establish a joint Business council that would act in contact with the Chambers of commerce of African countries; 4) establish an African Exhibition Center in China; 5) provide preferential access for African exports to the Chinese market; 6) facilitate access for Chinese and African exports to the markets of both sides by liberalizing trade rules ²⁸.

The 2006 White Paper "China's Policy towards Africa" also outlined a number of measures aimed at facilitating access of African goods to the Chinese market. These include expanding duty-free exports of African products to China; establishing the China-Africa Chamber of Commerce; and negotiating a Free trade zone with the continent's countries and regions. ²⁹

The practical result of these decisions was the opening of 11 centers for promoting Chinese investment and trade development in Africa, whose functions include payment security, customs duties, insurance, and business advice. The China Export-Import Bank and the Bank of China have established a special "Group for Trade, Economic, Technical and Economic Cooperation and coordination of relations with African Countries" under the auspices of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, which is responsible for planning, organizing and coordinating the development of China's trade and economic cooperation with the African continent.

The leadership of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Commerce organize visits of trade delegations of the People's Republic of China to Africa, arrange expositions of products of African countries, providing exhibition space to participating countries free of charge. So, in 2011, the exhibition center for African products was opened in Shenzhen; more than 2 thousand products from 20 countries of Africa were presented at its stands.³⁰

Conferences are held to discuss Sino-African trade issues with the participation of representatives of African countries. For example, a conference in July 2007 in Wuhan, the capital of China's Hubei Province, was attended by 49 representatives of the-

lei from 21 African countries. The guests offered the hosts over 100 trade and economic projects ³¹.

Currently, the China-Africa Chamber of Commerce and numerous bilateral trade and economic commissions operate. In 2013, the list was expanded to include a commission that will promote the development of trade and economic ties between China and Djibouti.³² In 2012, meetings of bilateral trade and economic commissions with Equatorial Guinea and Mauritius were held.

In 2003, the Government of the People's Republic of China announced its decision to grant African countries the right to import duty-free parts of African products to China. A concrete step was the elimination of tariffs on 190 types of goods imported from 28 least developed countries in Africa. In 2006, the list was expanded to 478 items.

In 2012, China took the next step: it abolished customs duties on 60% of goods from 30 least developed countries in Africa.³³ By the end of 2012, the value of products imported by China from 22 African countries on a tariff-free basis was $1.46 billion. ³⁴ By 2015, it is planned to make 95% of imports to China from all African countries that have diplomatic relations with it "tariff-free" ³⁵.

African agricultural products have benefited the most from the introduction of bullet tariffs, which has led to an increase in their imports to China. The following figures are indicative: if Chinese agricultural exports to Africa grew by 57% from 2009 to 2012-from $1.58 billion. China's agricultural imports from Africa increased by ¹⁴⁶% over the same period, from $1.16 billion to $ 2.49 billion. up to $2.86 billion ³⁷. This was primarily due to the expansion of imports of cotton, silk, vegetable and animal oil.

Measures are outlined to ensure the further development of China-Africa trade, which include:: 1) implementing the "Special Plan for Trade with Africa"; 2) expanding the brands of Chinese products, improving marketing, and improving the quality of goods exported to Africa; 3) helping African countries improve their trade and customs systems ³⁸.

PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES

However, some aspects of China's trade policy in Africa cause fair criticism in the countries of the continent. This applies, in particular, to the export of African timber to China. The legislation of some countries, such as Gabon, requires that only processed wood is exported from the country-timber, boards, plywood, etc.China prefers to export "roundwood" and often does it illegally. The World Bank estimates that China's illegal export of timber annually brings Cameroon a loss of $3 million, the Republic of Congo - $4.2 million, Gabon - $10.1 million, and Ghana - $37.5 million.³⁹

In 2012, Chinese companies exported from Mozambique (according to various sources) from 189.6 thousand to 215.6 thousand cubic meters of wood, which accounted for 48% of Chinese imports from the country. At the same time, it was reported that half of the Mozambique timber that arrived in China was exported illegally. According to the National Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), the country has lost more than $29 million ⁴⁰. Mozambique introduced a system of logging licenses to combat illegal logging, but the Chinese bought licenses from local entrepreneurs and shipped the timber to the PRC.⁴¹

African businessmen are also dissatisfied with the fact that China supplies a number of its products at low, virtually dumping prices, which negatively affects local production, since the products of African enterprises cannot compete with Chinese ones. After China became a member of the WTO, having received the right to duty-free trade in a number of African countries, about 30 thousand jobs were "lost" in the textile industry of the latter. Competition with Chinese manufacturers has driven 28% of Ethiopian businesses to bankruptcy. In 2010, two major Ghanaian companies - Ghana Textile Print and Printex-went bankrupt and ceased operations, unable to compete with Chinese imports.⁴²

However, recently there have been changes in the form of joint ventures created by China with the participation of Africans. For example, China took advantage of the American Growth and Opportunity Act for Africa (AGOA Act) granted to 27 sub-Saharan African countries, which allowed these countries to purchase raw materials in third countries for the manufacture of their products, which can enter the US market duty-free, by a regulation of September 30, 2012, extended until September 30, 2015. Made from cheap Chinese raw materials, these products are competitive in the American and European markets. According to Ethiopian President Mulatu Teshome, "Chinese companies have fully integrated into the Ethiopian economy, and what they produce is no longer Chinese, but Ethiopian." ⁴³

An important component of Sino-African cooperation is the export of labor resources from China, carried out on a contractual basis. Contract prices are low due to the low cost of labor. Chinese people working in Africa bring their country up to $ 1 billion. annual income.

At the same time, the Chinese often perform work that was previously performed by Africans, which can not but cause dissatisfaction with the latter. Local merchants can't stand the con-

business meetings with visitors who have the opportunity to buy goods at a low price in their homeland. At the same time, the share of Chinese in the markets of African countries is growing. In Namibia, for example, it is estimated to be between 30 and 60%.

Among the problems hindering Sino-African trade are the lack of goods of interest to China, lack of funds, as well as the unstable political situation, conflicts, crime, and transport problems.

Most African countries are interested in developing trade and economic ties with China. This was discussed, in particular, at the international conference held in late 2011 in Addis Ababa dedicated to the opening of the African Trade Forum, organized by the Center for African Trade Policy, the African Union and ADB. Among other things, the proposal to create a continental free trade zone, i.e., in fact, to create a continental tariff-free space, was discussed.

However, the idea was met with pessimism by participants who questioned the readiness of African countries to eliminate tariffs and other barriers that now hinder trade even between neighboring countries. The issue of doing business with China was also discussed. The meeting participants came to the conclusion that it is necessary to develop a single long-term strategy for relations with "a new partner who has come for a long time", and the Afro-Union should become the main "negotiator" ^.44

* * *

Despite the problems in Sino-African trade relations, the benefits of such a partnership for all its participants are obvious. For China, it provides access to African raw materials, primarily energy resources; for Africa, it provides access to inexpensive and high-quality goods, equipment and technologies. At the same time, the rapid development of trade exchanges with China forces African countries to take measures to protect their own interests and urge Beijing to make bilateral trade truly mutually beneficial.

¹ China is preparing to become a colonial empire. 05.12.2006 - www.rambler.ru/.srch=1251

² War and peace. African map of China. 02.06.07 -http://www.warandpeace./ru/ru/hots/view/11830

³ Ekonomicheskie izvestiya. 2008. N 22 (785).

^{Li Hongmei.} 4 Why Premier Wen shrugs off "China model" // People's Daily. March 15, 2011.

⁵ The 2010 Statistical Abstract of the United States. Wash., 2010.

⁶ Africa-China trading relationship. Tralac. Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa. All the data supplied is sourced from the China Trade Atlas - www.gtis.com/gta

⁷ Survey of Current Business. April 2010. Wash. - http://www.bea.gov

⁸ China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013). Information Office of the State Council The People's Republic of China. Beijing. August 2013.

⁹ China-Africa trade topped $210 bin in 2013 // Xinhua. 23.04.2014 - www.ecns.cn/business/2014/04 - 23/110674 shtml

¹⁰ Africa-China trading relationship. Tralac...

¹¹ Regional Focus: China-Africa // The China Analyst. April 2014 -www.thebeijingaxis.com/tca/editions/the-china-analyst-apr-2014/236-regional-focus-china-a frica

^{Cisse Dauda.} 12 China engagement in Africa: opportunities and challenges for Africa. Africa Creative Economy Conference. Cape Town. 06 - 09 Oct. 2013. Centre for Chinese Studies. Stellenbosch, South Africa. 2013.

¹³ China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013)...

^{Freemantle Simon, Stevens Jeremy.} 14 9 things you should know about China's economic ties with Africa (how we made it in Africa). Insight into business in Africa. 12 March 2012.

^{Gupta S., Yang Y.} 15 Unblocking Trade. Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund. December 2006. V. 43, N 4.

¹⁶ Ibidem.

^{Broadman Harry G.} 17 Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier. Wash. World Bank. 2007.

^{Deich T. L.} 18 Africa in the Strategy of China, Moscow, 2008, p. 193. (Deich T. L. 2008. Afrika v strategii Kitaya. M.) (in Russian)

¹⁹ Regional Focus: China-Africa...

²⁰ China-Africa Trade and Investment Report. TUSIAD China Busuness Insight STDU Viewer. September 2013.

²¹ U.S. crude import from Africa declines by 90% - EI A. Energy Mix Report. May 2014 // African News. Oil and Gas Industry news htm

²² International Energy Outlook. 2013. U.S.Energy Information Administration. July 25, 2013 - http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ico/ coal.cfm

²³ China January coal imports rise 56% from year ago, Custom says // Bloomberg news, 8.02.2013 - http://www.bloomberg.cjm/news/2013 - 02-08/china-january-cjal-imports-rise-56-from-year-ago

²⁴ Ibidem.

^{Shinn David H.} 25 China-Africa Relations: The Big Picture. 6.12.2011 - http://www.jofr.org/2011

²⁶ Ibidem.

^{Belh Walden.} 27 China provokes debate in Africa. 12.03.2007 -http://fpif.org/fpiftxt/4065

²⁸ Beijing Programme for China-Africa Cooperation in Economic and Social Development. 12.10.2002 - http://www.dra.gov.za/foreign/ Multilateral/africa/treaties/beeprog.htm

²⁹ China's African Policy. 01.12.2006 - http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ eng/zxxx/t230615.htm

³⁰ China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013)...

³¹ Africa looks forward to all-round cooperation with China // People's Daily Online. 05.07.2007 - http://english.people.Com.cn./ 90001/90776/6208090.html

³² Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China. Annual review of commercial activities in 2012. Deep development of Sino-African cooperation on the basis of mutually beneficial and mutually beneficial benefits. 01.04.2013 - http://russia.mofcom.gov.cn/article/speechheader/201301/ 2013018509454.shtml

³³ Ibid.

³⁴ China-Africa Trade and Investment Report...

³⁵ China scraps tariff on 60% of import from 26 African nations // Xinhua. China-Wire. 02.07.2010.

³⁶ China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation (2013^{)... 37} China-Africa Trade and Investment Report....

³⁸ Ibidem.

³⁹ World Bank. WWF Alliance. Forest Law Assessment in Selected African Countries, SGS Trade Assurance Services. October 30, 2002.

^{Levitt T.} 40 Mozambique losing millions to illegal Chinese logging trade. 07.02.2013 - http://www.chinadialogue.net.blog/5685-Mozam-bique-losing-millions-to-illegal-chinese-log ging-trade.en

⁴¹ China's Influence in Africa. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa. Global Human Rights and International Operations of the Committee on International Relations House of Representatives. Wash. July 28, 2005. P. 66.

⁴² China Monitor. Centre for Chinese Studies. Stellenbosch University. Cape Town. Issue 49. March 2010. P. 18.

⁴³ Investment from China beneficial to Africa // China Daily -http://www.ecns.cn/business/2014/01 - 27/98750.shtml

^{Kiplang At. Jeremiah.} 44 Africa urged to adopt common strategy to do business with Africa // The East African Outlook. December 19 - 25, 2011.

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