I. V. SABLIN

(Saint Petersburg)

Key words: ecology, environmental pollution, China, india, globalization

Globalization is making countries and peoples increasingly interconnected and interdependent in political, economic, cultural and social terms. But in ecological terms, the world has always been one. If goods and services from China or India are available and, most importantly, are not needed by everyone today, then there are no people on our planet who are independent of the climate, the state of the atmosphere and the waters of the World Ocean, who do not need food and fresh water.

Two decades ago, the main source of the global environmental crisis was seen as the mode of production and consumption in developed countries. Today, fast-growing (emerging market) countries are becoming key environmental actors. It is on their efforts to solve global and regional environmental problems (of course, with the assistance of developed countries) that the life of all mankind will depend.

Among the former third world countries, China and India enjoy great political influence, which, together with the significant impact of their economies on the environment, allows us to speak of them as environmental superpowers.¹

If the level of consumption in India and China approaches the level of consumption in developed countries, then the world will face an environmental catastrophe. At the same time, the possibility of immediately moving to a sustainable development model*, bypassing the negative environmental consequences of industrial development, seems unrealistic**.

Whether a compromise will be found between the desire for economic growth and limited natural resources remains an open question. The development of the entire world will largely depend on what path of development these countries will take in the coming years.

WHAT HARMS PEOPLE AND NATURE

The most pressing environmental problems in China include: pollution of the environment (especially air) with organic and inorganic substances (including heavy metals), water shortage and its inefficient use, energy shortage, a complex of urban environmental problems, and problems related to waste.

The range of issues that are most significant for India includes water pollution and water scarcity, excessive use of chemicals in agriculture and soil degradation, environmental problems in cities, deforestation, reduced biodiversity, and increased waste.

In India, environmental issues are viewed in a broad social, cultural and economic context. Much attention is paid to human health and environmental stability. China is characterized by a more pragmatic approach, considering environmental issues in terms of economic efficiency and avoiding discussion of social and cultural aspects.

Chinese society pays considerable attention to environmental pollution, especially air pollution, caused both by industrial development in general and mainly by the country's thermal energy: the main harmful substances - sulfur dioxide and fly ash-are formed during the combustion of coal fuel. Experts also express concern about the state of surface and ^ground water2.

In India, as in China, pollution issues are considered in the context of industrialization, urbanization, and population growth. To this, however, Indian scientists often add the erosion of traditional customs and norms that previously helped Indians take care of the environment.³ Despite the fact that the increased content of harmful impurities in the air in many cities of India is a serious concern, the biggest problem was the heavy water pollution caused primarily by urbanization, and the lack of water supply in the city.

* Sustainable (self-sufficient) development - "meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (editor's note).

** For more information, see: Annaev A. Ecology: pitfalls of India's Economic Development / / Asia and Africa Today, 2010, N 4.

as well as industrial and agricultural activities ⁴.

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides not only results in significant contamination of ground and surface water, but also leads to poisoning and soil degradation. The use of chemicals in agriculture continues to increase in China, which leads to an increase in the share of agriculture in environmental pollution.⁵

Both countries are characterized by the negative consequences of urbanization - water and air pollution, noise, etc. ⁶

Significant environmental damage is caused by the accumulation of heavy metals, which negatively affects both human health and crop yields. Chinese and Indian scientists are making significant efforts to develop technologies for its detection and purification.⁷

A pressing problem in China and India has become a complex and multidimensional problem of waste - domestic, industrial, including hazardous, electronic, medical, agricultural ⁸.

Less popular topics in both countries include acid soil pollution, the environmental impact of mining, and acid rain. India pays significantly more attention than China to the problems of exhaust gases and nuclear waste. In China, they are more attentive to the problems of ionizing and electromagnetic radiation, as well as to the pollution of coastal waters.⁹

Pollution of coastal waters has caused a specific environmental problem for China - the so-called "red tides". As a result of the dissolution of nitrogen and phosphorus in water, the population of microscopic algae in coastal waters sharply increases, which leads to a lack of oxygen and an excess of toxic substances in the water, as well as the death of marine plants and animals.¹⁰

In China, there is almost no information about the impact of the state of the environment on human and animal health. In India, by contrast, there are many studies devoted to these issues.¹¹

In Chinese environmental science, almost no attention is paid to wildlife at all. At the same time, in India, the problems associated with deforestation and the reduction of biodiversity are among the most urgent. Much has been written on the creation of nature reserves, in particular on the conservation of wetlands, on biodiversity in the aquatic environ-ment ¹², near reservoirs and in tropical forests 13. The study of ecosystem stability (with the exception of the stability of arid regions and the problem of desertification, to which a separate journal is devoted) is also much less fully covered in China14 than in India ¹⁵.

India is characterized by an interdisciplinary approach to environmental, social, cultural and religious issues. The idea of the relationship between cultural and biological diversity, between biological diversity and rural development is very popular. Research on the negative impact of religious practices on the environment is also interesting. For example, the ritual of throwing idols of the god Ganesha into rivers leads to a significant deterioration in water quality during the decomposition of organic substances from which idols are made. In addition, the paint used to cover idols has a high content of heavy metals, which also pollute the water.¹⁶

Much attention in India is also paid to such environmental, economic and social problems as the construction of large infrastructure structures, primarily concrete dams. Dams that perform irrigation and energy functions are a symbol of progress and development in India. However, the environmental, cultural and social consequences of their construction cause serious concern to many researchers: these structures do not

They not only destroy ecosystems, disrupt the hydrological regimes of rivers, flood forests, lead to erosion, but also force thousands of people to leave their traditional territories.

In total, several million people have been displaced in India since independence, most of whom have not received adequate financial compensation. The construction of new structures (not only dams, but also other infrastructure facilities), as well as problems associated with existing facilities, are under the close attention of Indian scientists.¹⁷

Although India is a world leader in dam construction, large infrastructure structures are also being actively built in China. But the social, environmental, and cultural consequences of such projects are clearly not covered enough in the Chinese scientific literature. However, the Chinese media write a lot about the negative impact of hydroelectric power plants on the environment, forced relocation due to the implementation of large infrastructure projects, in particular, the "turning of rivers". In the country, over the past few years, issues related to the scarcity and inefficient use of water and its rational use have become one of the most popular topics ¹⁸.

The problem of rational use of natural resources is also closely linked to the energy problem, which is also among the most discussed in China. Currently, China consumes enormous amounts of energy, and despite some improvements in energy efficiency, energy consumption continues to grow during the ongoing industrialization and urbanization.¹⁹

LOTS OF AGREEMENTS...

The history of cooperation between China and India in environmental protection dates back to September 7, 1993, when the two governments signed an Agreement on environmental Cooperation in Beijing.

In the document, the parties recognized that for further economic growth and increasing the well-being of the population, it is necessary to follow the principles of the concept of sustainable development and make efforts to improve the quality of the environment. Among the priority areas of cooperation are the solution of global environmental problems (including the conservation of biodiversity, combating climate change and protecting the ozone layer); solving problems related to waste; combating water and air pollution; improving the effectiveness of environmental control; developing environmental legislation; developing public environmental awareness and education. Cooperation mechanisms include the exchange of scientists, experts and other relevant specialists; exchange of information; conduct of joint research; organization of symposia, seminars, lectures and training courses; development and adoption of agreements on specific areas of cooperation and projects.

The National Environmental Protection Administration of the People's Republic of China (now the Ministry of Environmental Protection) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Republic of India are responsible for coordinating joint activities under the agreement.

This agreement was signed for a five-year term with the possibility of ²⁰ extensions.

The complication in Sino-Indian relations caused by the first nuclear test in India in 1998 prevented the treaty's extension, and bilateral environmental relations actually resumed only in 2002 after the visit of Chinese Premier Zhu Rongji to India. The two countries signed a memorandum of understanding on science and technology, cooperation in space exploration, and hydrological data exchange.²¹

In June 2003, during the return visit of Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the two countries ' desire for scientific cooperation in the field of environment was confirmed by a memorandum of understanding between the State Natural Science Foundation of China and the Indian Ministry of Science and Technology, ²² and a memorandum of understanding between the relevant departments of the two countries on cooperation in the field of and protection of the World Ocean ²³.

In recent years, the topic of bilateral cooperation in the field of the environment has been constantly raised in the speeches of Chinese and Indian politicians.-

²⁴. A number of joint research projects have been launched to study changes in the environment, the variability of the world's oceans, terrestrial ecosystems, and land - ocean-atmosphere systems. Such research is closely linked to regional and global programs in which scientists from both countries are actively involved.²⁵

The Agreement on Cooperation on Climate Change signed in New Delhi on October 21, 2009 can be considered an important stage in the development of Sino-Indian environmental relations.

India and China reaffirmed their commitment to the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities", calling on developed countries to take the lead in combating climate change, continue to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, provide financial assistance to developing countries, transfer technology to them, and fully support their development. ²⁶

This document, adopted on the eve of the UN Copenhagen Climate Change Conference, was intended to bring closer and strengthen the positions of China and India. The summit was preceded by meetings of the two countries ' representatives at the ministerial level, and during the Copenhagen conference itself, bilateral consultations were conducted by the heads of Government of the two countries.²⁷

China, as the main emitter of carbon dioxide, ²⁸ and India, along with other developing countries, have achieved their main goal: the Copenhagen Accord is not binding and does not impose any restrictions on States that have "taken note of it"²⁹. No decision was made on radical measures to reduce emissions at a meeting in Mexico a year later.

However, it would be wrong to consider the Sino-Indian agreement only as an instrument of pressure on developed countries.

The document signed in New Delhi is intended to become the basis for the development of bilateral cooperation on a wide range of issues.

The priorities are: energy conservation and energy efficiency; use of renewable energy sources; environmentally friendly coal burning technologies; methane recovery and use; exchange of experience and technologies in the field of afforestation, sustainable forest management and ecosystem management; transport; and environmental sustainability. Parties also pay special attention to climate change adaptation, including assessment and mitigation of the adverse effects of climate change, taking adequate measures and developing adaptive technologies. It provides for information exchange, climate change monitoring, public awareness, scientific exchanges, education development, personnel exchange, joint events and cooperation on planning issues.

Specific mechanisms include: conducting joint research and development activities, including commercially profitable projects; developing technologies and ways to implement them; organizing scientific seminars, symposiums and conferences; developing public-private partnerships and other forms of activity.

In addition, the parties agreed to hold regular consultations at the ministerial level and create a special working group. The State Development and Reform Committee of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Republic of India are responsible for implementing activities under the agreement. The agreement is valid from the moment of signing for 5 years, after which it will be extended automatically for another ⁵ years.

It is obvious that the previous experience has been taken into account, and states do not want to lose the legal basis for environmental cooperation in the event of a change in the political situation. A significant increase in the level of the responsible body on the part of China means that the problem of climate change in this country is considered from the perspective of development in the broad sense of the word, i.e., taking into account its environmental, economic and social components.

...FEW SPECIFIC CASES

Summing up nearly two decades of Sino-Indian cooperation in the field of environmental management-

It is possible to say that politicians have proposed and institutionalized specific areas for joint work of scientists and experts from the two countries. South-South scientific cooperation in key areas such as global environmental change and renewable energy can significantly influence policy decisions on global issues.³¹ Unfortunately, the actual level of scientific cooperation in the field of the environment turned out to be much lower than planned. Political difficulties often stand in the way of implementing the agreements reached.

For example, in the summer of 2009, Chinese scientists were refused to conduct research on the Himalayan glaciers in India, which are of fundamental importance for the water supply of both countries, as well as for the entire global ecosystem. The Indian government does not consider the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas caused by global warming to be a proven fact, but it is ready to continue consultations with China on this issue and monitor the situation in its territory. ³²

In addition to the above-mentioned political problems associated with the unresolved border dispute and a serious lack of mutual trust (China and India remain competitors in many areas), existing cultural and linguistic differences hinder full communication between representatives of the two countries ' scientific circles. In addition, countries often downplay the severity of environmental problems and underestimate the benefits of coordinated joint action.³³

At the moment, there is no information on any significant achievements of joint Sino-Indian efforts to solve environmental problems at the global, regional or local level. The state of the environment in both countries continues to deteriorate, and environmental regulation in them is assessed as ineffective. Both scientists and politicians in these countries speak about the lack of joint efforts.³⁴

Nevertheless, the existence of a constantly developing international legal framework, active scientific ties between the two countries, and at least the declared political will on both sides allow us to hope that in the future India and China can become ecological superpowers not in terms of their impact on the environment, but in terms of effectively leveling such impact.

Moreover, environmental cooperation is one of the promising areas that will contribute to improving the political atmosphere in bilateral relations, as well as in the framework of the RIC (Russia, India, China) and BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa).

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²⁰ Agreement on Environmental Cooperation between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of India / / Chinese Geological Library (in Chinese) - http://www.cgl.org.cn/GlobalChange/res/convention/.htm

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²³ Marine Bulletin of Environmental Quality of China, 2003 / / Ministry of Land and Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese) - http://www.mlr.gov.cn/zwgk/tjxx/201004/t20100401_713695.htm

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^{Abrol D.} 25 Op. cit.

²⁶ Agreement on Cooperation on Climate Change between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of India. New Delhi, 21.10.2009 // China Climate Change Information Network. China Climate Change Info-Net (in Chinese), there is a simplified automatic translation into Russian. - http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/cn/NewsInfo.asp?NewsId-20011

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³⁰ Agreement on Cooperation on Climate Change between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of India. New Delhi, 21.10.2009 // China Climate Change Information Network. China Climate Change Info-Net (in Chinese), there is a simplified automatic translation into Russian. - http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/cn/NewsInfo.asp?NewsId-20011

^{Abrol D.} 31 Op. cit.

³² Joint monitoring of Himalayan glaciers with India (in Chinese) - http://china.huanqiu.com/eyes_on_china/environment-technology/2009 - 08/535769.html

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